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|title=The Danger of Treating Entire Religions as Single Political Ideologies

|description=An overview of research examining why religions should not be treated as single political ideologies. The collected sources explore internal religious diversity, political pluralism, nationalism, essentialism, and the distinction between religious traditions and political movements.

|keywords=religion, political ideology, religious diversity, pluralism, essentialism, political theology, Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, nationalism, Hindutva, Zionism, Islamism, democracy, political movements, religious nationalism, stereotypes

|image=File:Placeholder.png

|image_width=300

|image_height=200

|type=article}}

[[Category:Religion]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Political Ideologies]]
[[Category:Political Philosophy]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]
[[Category:Religious Diversity]]
[[Category:Pluralism]]
[[Category:Political Theology]]
[[Category:Nationalism]]
[[Category:Comparative Religion]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:Political Science]]

__NOTOC__

== The Danger of Treating Entire Religions as Single Political Ideologies ==

This collection of articles examines the widespread tendency to treat entire religions as unified political ideologies. Across numerous academic studies, surveys, policy analyses, and historical essays, the sources consistently show that religious communities contain substantial internal diversity shaped by theology, ethnicity, nationality, history, culture, economics, and personal experience. They argue that political movements frequently borrow religious language, but those movements should not automatically be equated with the religions from which they draw inspiration.

=== Religious Diversity and Political Essentialism ===

The sources explain that essentialism—the assumption that all members of a religious group share identical beliefs, motivations, or political goals—encourages stereotyping and oversimplifies complex communities. Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Indigenous religions, and many other traditions encompass multiple schools of thought, denominations, interpretations, and political viewpoints. Political behavior often varies more within a religion than between religions.

=== Religion and Political Identity ===

Several studies demonstrate that religion and politics influence one another rather than operating in a simple one-way relationship. Religious affiliation may shape political values, but political identity can also influence religious participation, interpretation, and institutional affiliation. National culture, race, ethnicity, immigration history, education, and social class frequently produce different political outcomes among people sharing the same religious identity.

=== Distinguishing Religions from Political Movements ===

A recurring theme is the importance of separating religious traditions from political ideologies that selectively employ religious language. The collection discusses distinctions such as:

* Islam versus Islamism
* Hinduism versus Hindutva
* Judaism versus Zionism
* Christianity versus Christian nationalism
* Buddhism versus Buddhist nationalism

The sources emphasize that political movements represent particular historical and ideological projects rather than the inevitable expression of an entire religion.

=== Religious Nationalism and State Power ===

Many articles examine how governments and political organizations invoke religion to strengthen national identity, justify policy, or mobilize public support. These studies show that religious nationalism develops through specific historical, institutional, and political circumstances instead of arising automatically from religious doctrine. Even within countries where religious nationalism is influential, significant numbers of believers reject nationalist interpretations of their faith.

=== Democracy, Citizenship, and Pluralism ===

Research throughout the collection highlights the compatibility of religious diversity with democratic citizenship. Religious communities frequently contain conservatives, liberals, socialists, libertarians, secular participants, reformers, traditionalists, and politically unaffiliated members. Democratic pluralism depends upon recognizing these internal differences rather than assuming that religious identity determines political loyalty.

=== Comparative Religious Case Studies ===

The collection includes comparative discussions covering Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Indigenous religions, and African traditional religions. These case studies demonstrate that every major religious tradition contains internal debates over theology, ethics, political participation, nationalism, social justice, and the relationship between religion and government. Cross-national comparisons further illustrate how historical context produces very different political expressions within the same religion.

=== Research on Essentialism and Stereotyping ===

Psychological and sociological research explores how essentialist thinking encourages prejudice by attributing fixed characteristics to entire religious populations. Surveys show that public misunderstandings often result from limited knowledge, media simplification, political rhetoric, and the visibility of extremist groups. The studies recommend recognizing internal diversity as a way to reduce stereotyping and improve public understanding.

=== Conclusion ===

Taken together, these sources argue that religions are best understood as diverse and evolving traditions rather than single political ideologies. Political movements may adopt religious symbols, governments may invoke religious identity, and believers may organize around political causes, but none of these developments justify treating billions of individuals as members of a single ideological bloc. Recognizing internal diversity allows for more accurate scholarship, better public policy, stronger democratic pluralism, and fairer treatment of religious communities.

__TOC__





=== Religious Identity and Political Diversity ===
* 2026 — As Progressives Seek to Take On Inequality, Some Cite Religion as a Motivating Factor
[https://apnews.com/article/6f4819c30689f3e497110ba4e04702a3 | Peter Smith | Associated Press | 2026]

=== Comparative Studies of Religion, Politics, and National Identity ===
* July 17, 2025 — Results From the 2024 Indian American Attitudes Survey
[https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2025/07/indian-americans-social-survey-data | Milan Vaishnav, Jamie Hintson, and Devesh Kapur | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace | July 17, 2025]

* June 9, 2025 — How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ | Conrad Hackett, Marcin Stonawski, Yunping Tong, Stephanie Kramer, Anne Shi, and Dalia Fahmy | Pew Research Center | June 9, 2025]

* March 26, 2025 — Around the World, Many People Are Leaving Their Childhood Religions
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/03/26/around-the-world-many-people-are-leaving-their-childhood-religions/ | Jonathan Evans and Manolo Corichi | Pew Research Center | March 26, 2025]

* January 28, 2025 — How Important Is Following a Specific Religion to National Belonging?
[https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2025/01/28/how-important-is-following-a-specific-religion-to-national-belonging/ | Laura Silver, Janell Fetterolf, Christine Huang, Sarah Austin, Laura Clancy, and Sneha Gubbala | Pew Research Center | January 28, 2025]

* January 2, 2025 — The Religious Composition of the 119th Congress
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/01/02/faith-on-the-hill-2025/ | Jeff Diamant | Pew Research Center | January 2, 2025]

=== Religious Identity and Political Diversity ===
* 2025 — Religious Nationalism Around the World
[https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2025/01/28/comparing-levels-of-religious-nationalism-around-the-world/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | 2025]

* 2025 — Religion, Partisanship and Ideology
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/02/26/religion-partisanship-and-ideology/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | 2025]

* 2025 — Muslim Americans Share Political Attitudes With Both the Democratic and Republican Parties
[https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2025/07/21/muslim-americans-share-political-attitudes-with-both-the-democratic-and-republican-parties/ | Gregory A. Smith | Pew Research Center | 2025]

* 2025 — Judaism and Pluralism in the Context of Global Diversity
[https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/events/judaism-and-pluralism-in-the-context-of-global-diversity | Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs | Georgetown University | 2025]

=== Pluralism and the Rejection of Religious Monoliths ===
* May 9, 2024 — Harvard Religion Professor Diana Eck on Pluralism’s Changes and Challenges
[https://religionnews.com/2024/05/09/harvard-religion-professor-diana-eck-on-pluralisms-changes-challenges/ | Yonat Shimron | Religion News Service | May 9, 2024]

=== Religious Identity and Political Diversity ===
* 2024 — Party Identification Among Religious Groups and Religiously Unaffiliated Voters
[https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2024/04/09/party-identification-among-religious-groups-and-religiously-unaffiliated-voters/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | 2024]

* 2024 — How Americans See Religion’s Role in Public Life
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2024/03/15/religions-role-in-public-life/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | 2024]

=== Hinduism, Hindutva, and Indian Politics ===
* 2024 — Combatting India’s Rising Extremism
[https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/publications/combatting-india-s-rising-extremism | Irfan Nooruddin | Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs | 2024]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2024 — Christianity Is Not a Monolith
[https://www.jordanbirkner.com/post/christianity-is-not-a-monolith | Jordan Birkner | Jordan Birkner | 2024]

=== Hinduism, Hindutva, and Indian Politics ===
* 2024 — Bridging or Breaking: Impact of Intergroup Interactions on Religious Polarization
[https://arxiv.org/abs/2402.11895 | Rochana Chaturvedi, Sugat Chaturvedi, and Elena Zheleva | arXiv | 2024]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2024 — Asian American Evangelicals’ Theology Is Conservative. But That Doesn’t Mean They Vote That Way
[https://apnews.com/article/election-2024-asian-american-evangelicals-voters-9d40ec99fbb51c56f5f08a23ab6cda9e | Deepa Bharath | Associated Press | 2024]

* 2023 — Towards Countering Essentialism Through Social Bias Reasoning
[https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.16173 | Emily Allaway, Nina Taneja, Sarah-Jane Leslie, and Maarten Sap | arXiv | 2023]

* 2023 — Recontesting the Sacred: Political Theology as Ideological Method
[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13569317.2023.2225237 | Benjamin T. Jones and Coauthors | Journal of Political Ideologies | 2023]

=== Religious Identity and Political Diversity ===
* 2023 — In Singapore, Religious Diversity and Tolerance Go Hand in Hand
[https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/06/in-singapore-religious-diversity-and-tolerance-go-hand-in-hand/ | Jonathan Evans | Pew Research Center | 2023]

=== Pluralism and the Rejection of Religious Monoliths ===
* December 21, 2022 — Key Findings From the Global Religious Futures Project
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/12/21/key-findings-from-the-global-religious-futures-project/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | December 21, 2022]

* August 16, 2022 — Interfaith Summit Dreams of America as a Potluck, Not a Battlefield
[https://religionnews.com/2022/08/16/interfaith-summit-dreams-of-america-as-a-potluck-not-a-battlefield/ | Alejandra Molina | Religion News Service | August 16, 2022]

* April 18, 2022 — Holy Days Converging in April Spark Interfaith Celebrations
[https://religionnews.com/2022/04/18/holy-days-converging-in-april-spark-interfaith-celebrations/ | Jack Jenkins | Religion News Service | April 18, 2022]

* February 24, 2022 — Religious Diversity in India: Two Decades After the Gujarat Riots
[https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/02/religious-diversity-india-two-decades-after-gujarat-riots | Tamanna Salikuddin | United States Institute of Peace | February 24, 2022]

=== Christianity and Conflicting Political Traditions ===
* December 14, 2021 — About Three-in-Ten U.S. Adults Are Now Religiously Unaffiliated
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/12/14/about-three-in-ten-u-s-adults-are-now-religiously-unaffiliated/ | Gregory A. Smith | Pew Research Center | December 14, 2021]

=== Judaism, Israeli Politics, and Internal Division ===
* May 21, 2021 — U.S. Jews Have Widely Differing Views on Israel
[https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2021/05/21/u-s-jews-have-widely-differing-views-on-israel/ | Becka A. Alper | Pew Research Center | May 21, 2021]

* May 11, 2021 — Jewish Americans in 2020: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/05/11/jewish-americans-in-2020-answers-to-frequently-asked-questions/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | May 11, 2021]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2021 — The Troubling Consequences of Seeing Muslims as a Racial Group
[https://time.com/6128060/the-racial-muslim-sahar-aziz/ | Madeleine Carlisle | Time | 2021]

=== Understanding Religion as a Contested and Changing Category ===
* 2021 — Religious Beliefs and Internal Diversity
[https://www.aauw.org/resources/member/leader-resources-tools/dei-toolkit/dimensions-of-diversity/religious-beliefs/ | American Association of University Women | AAUW | 2021]

=== Judaism, Zionism, and Competing Political Traditions ===
* 2021 — Judaism, Zionism, and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/judaism-zionism-and-the-israeli-palestinian-conflict/ | My Jewish Learning Staff | My Jewish Learning | 2021]

* 2021 — Jewish Americans in 2020
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/05/11/jewish-americans-in-2020/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | 2021]

* 2021 — American Jews’ Political Priorities and Voting Preferences
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/05/11/u-s-jews-political-views/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | 2021]

=== Christianity and Conflicting Political Traditions ===
* October 28, 2020 — A Time to Heal, A Time to Build
[https://www.brookings.edu/articles/a-time-to-heal-a-time-to-build/ | E. J. Dionne Jr. and Melissa Rogers | Brookings Institution | October 28, 2020]

=== Hinduism and the Political Construction of Hindutva ===
* August 18, 2020 — Political Polarization in South and Southeast Asia: Old Divisions, New Dangers
[https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2020/08/political-polarization-in-south-and-southeast-asia-old-divisions-new-dangers | Thomas Carothers and Andrew O’Donohue | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace | August 18, 2020]

* April 21, 2020 — Religious Nationalism and India’s Future
[https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/india-hindu-nationalism-modi | Lindsay Maizland | Council on Foreign Relations | April 21, 2020]

=== Judaism, Zionism, and Competing Political Traditions ===
* 2020 — The Variety of Jewish Responses to Zionism
[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/orthodox-judaism-and-zionism | Jewish Virtual Library | American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise | 2020]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2020 — The Perils of Politicized Religion
[https://www.amacad.org/publication/daedalus/perils-politicized-religion | David E. Campbell | American Academy of Arts and Sciences | 2020]

=== African and Indigenous Religious Traditions ===
* 2020 — Indigenous Religions Are Not a Single Belief System
[https://pluralism.org/indigenous-traditions | The Pluralism Project | Harvard University | 2020]

=== Christianity Beyond a Single Left-Right Divide ===
* 2020 — Hispanic Catholics and White Catholics Have Different Political Profiles
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2020/09/15/u-s-hispanics-and-catholicism/ | Gregory A. Smith | Pew Research Center | 2020]

=== Hinduism, Hindutva, and Indian Politics ===
* 2020 — Hindutva and the Meaning of Modernity
[https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/responses/hindutva-and-the-meaning-of-modernity | M. Reza Pirbhai | Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs | 2020]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2020 — Diversity, Monoliths and Essentialism
[https://biblicalmissiology.org/blog/2020/04/27/diversity-monoliths-and-essentialism/ | Matthew Bennett | Biblical Missiology | 2020]

=== Islam, State Power, and Competing Political Projects ===
* September 28, 2019 — What Terrorism Experts Can Learn From Public Health Experts
[https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/09/28/what-terror-experts-can-learn-from-public-health-experts/ | Charles Kurzman | Foreign Policy | September 28, 2019]

=== Why Essentialist Thinking Becomes Dangerous ===
* July 23, 2019 — What Americans Know About Religion
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2019/07/23/what-americans-know-about-religion/ | Gregory A. Smith | Pew Research Center | July 23, 2019]

=== Hinduism and the Political Construction of Hindutva ===
* April 4, 2019 — The BJP in Power: Indian Democracy and Religious Nationalism
[https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2019/04/the-bjp-in-power-indian-democracy-and-religious-nationalism | Milan Vaishnav | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace | April 4, 2019]

=== Judaism, Zionism, and Competing Political Traditions ===
* 2019 — Why Judaism and Zionism Are Not the Same Thing
[https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/12/18/why-judaism-zionism-are-not-same-thing/ | Dov Waxman | The Washington Post | 2019]

=== Hinduism, Hindutva, and Indian Politics ===
* 2019 — The Rise of Hindu Nationalism and Its Regional and Global Ramifications
[https://www.csis.org/analysis/rise-hindu-nationalism-and-its-regional-and-global-ramifications | Milan Vaishnav | Center for Strategic and International Studies | 2019]

=== Islam, State Power, and Competing Political Projects ===
* 2019 — The Geopolitics of Religious Soft Power
[https://www.brookings.edu/collection/the-geopolitics-of-religious-soft-power/ | Brookings Institution | Brookings Institution | 2019]

=== Understanding Religion as a Contested and Changing Category ===
* 2019 — Religion Is More Than a Fixed Set of Beliefs
[https://hraf.yale.edu/ehc/summaries/religion | Carol R. Ember and Melvin Ember | Human Relations Area Files, Yale University | 2019]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2019 — On What a Religion Is Not
[https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/10/1/29 | Daniele Bertini | Religions | 2019]

* 2019 — Modeling Islamist Extremist Communications on Social Media Using Contextual Dimensions: Religion, Ideology, and Hate
[https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.06520 | Ugur Kursuncu, Manas Gaur, Carlos Castillo, Amanuel Alambo, K. Thirunarayan, Valerie Shalin, Dilshod Achilov, I. Budak Arpinar, and Amit Sheth | arXiv | 2019]

=== Hinduism, Hindutva, and Indian Politics ===
* 2019 — Hindu Nationalism Is Not Hinduism
[https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/07/hindu-nationalism-hinduism-narendra-modi-bjp/594124/ | Shashi Tharoor | The Atlantic | 2019]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2019 — Breaking the Perceptions of Islamic Monolithism
[https://repository.law.miami.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1325&context=umiclr | Ali A. Mazrui and Related Contributors | University of Miami International and Comparative Law Review | 2019]

=== Islam, State Power, and Competing Political Projects ===
* December 13, 2018 — Positive Branding and Soft Power: The Promotion of Sufism in the War on Terror
[https://www.brookings.edu/articles/positive-branding-and-soft-power-the-promotion-of-sufism-in-the-war-on-terror/ | Peter Mandaville | Brookings Institution | December 13, 2018]

* November 16, 2018 — Islam as Statecraft: How Governments Use Religion in Foreign Policy
[https://www.brookings.edu/articles/islam-as-statecraft-how-governments-use-religion-in-foreign-policy/ | Peter Mandaville and Shadi Hamid | Brookings Institution | November 16, 2018]

=== Hinduism and the Political Construction of Hindutva ===
* October 11, 2018 — What Is the Secret to the Success of India’s Bharatiya Janata Party?
[https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2018/10/what-is-the-secret-to-the-success-of-indias-bharatiya-janata-party-bjp | Milan Vaishnav and Suhas Palshikar | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace | October 11, 2018]

=== Buddhism, Nationalism, and Political Violence ===
* September 5, 2018 — Myanmar’s Buddhist Nationalism and the Rohingya Crisis
[https://www.usip.org/publications/2018/09/myanmars-buddhist-nationalism-and-rohingya-crisis | Susan Hayward and Matthew J. Walton | United States Institute of Peace | September 5, 2018]

=== Sikh Identity, Nationalism, and Political Diversity ===
* August 7, 2018 — Sikhs in America: A Religious Community’s Political Awakening
[https://religionandpolitics.org/2018/08/07/sikhs-in-america-a-religious-communitys-political-awakening/ | Simran Jeet Singh | Religion & Politics | August 7, 2018]

=== Buddhism, Nationalism, and Political Violence ===
* May 18, 2018 — The Rise of Buddhist Nationalism in Sri Lanka
[https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/rise-buddhist-nationalism-sri-lanka | Jayshree Bajoria | Council on Foreign Relations | May 18, 2018]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2018 — Why Aren’t We Paying Attention? Religion and Politics in Everyday Life
[https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6328064/ | Michele F. Margolis | Sociology of Religion | 2018]

=== Understanding Religion as a Contested and Changing Category ===
* 2018 — Religion and Politics
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-politics/ | Paul Weithman | Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | 2018]

=== Christianity Beyond a Single Left-Right Divide ===
* 2018 — How Americans’ Politics Drives Their Religious Views
[https://www.niskanencenter.org/how-americans-politics-drives-their-religious-views/ | Matt Grossmann and Michele Margolis | Niskanen Center | 2018]

=== Buddhism and Political Nationalism ===
* 2018 — Buddhism and State Power in Myanmar
[https://www.usip.org/publications/2018/09/myanmars-buddhist-nationalism-and-rohingya-crisis | Susan Hayward and Matthew J. Walton | United States Institute of Peace | 2018]

=== Buddhism, Nationalism, and Political Violence ===
* September 5, 2017 — Buddhism and State Power in Myanmar
[https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/290-buddhism-and-state-power-myanmar | International Crisis Group | International Crisis Group | September 5, 2017]

=== Islam, State Power, and Competing Political Projects ===
* August 9, 2017 — Muslims and Islam: Key Findings in the U.S. and Around the World
[https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/ | Michael Lipka | Pew Research Center | August 9, 2017]

=== Christianity and Conflicting Political Traditions ===
* April 5, 2017 — The Changing Global Religious Landscape
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | April 5, 2017]

=== Christianity Beyond a Single Left-Right Divide ===
* 2017 — The “Alt-Right” Has Created Alt-Christianity
[https://time.com/4915161/charlottesville-alt-right-alt-christianity/ | Brian McLaren | Time | 2017]

* 2017 — The Religious Left Is Changing American Politics
[https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/06/religious-left-politics/529015/ | Emma Green | The Atlantic | 2017]

=== Understanding Religion as a Contested and Changing Category ===
* 2017 — Islam as a Political Force: More Than Belief
[https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/islam-as-a-political-force-more-than-belief | Jocelyne Cesari | Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs | 2017]

=== Buddhism and Political Nationalism ===
* 2017 — Buddhism, Violence and the State in Myanmar
[https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/290-buddhism-and-state-power-myanmar | International Crisis Group | International Crisis Group | 2017]

=== Judaism, Israeli Politics, and Internal Division ===
* March 8, 2016 — Israel’s Religiously Divided Society
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2016/03/08/israels-religiously-divided-society/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | March 8, 2016]

=== Christianity and Conflicting Political Traditions ===
* May 12, 2015 — America’s Changing Religious Landscape
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | May 12, 2015]

=== Buddhism and Political Nationalism ===
* 2015 — The Rise of Buddhist Nationalism in Sri Lanka
[https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2015/04/the-rise-of-buddhist-nationalism-in-sri-lanka | Neil DeVotta | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace | 2015]

=== Why Essentialist Thinking Becomes Dangerous ===
* July 16, 2014 — How Americans Feel About Religious Groups
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2014/07/16/how-americans-feel-about-religious-groups/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | July 16, 2014]

=== Understanding Religion as a Contested and Changing Category ===
* 2014 — A Discussion With Peter Berger on Religious Pluralism
[https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/interviews/a-discussion-with-peter-berger-professor-emeritus-at-boston-university-29053f12-02c5-4441-b467-a544da22e99c | Peter Berger | Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs | 2014]

=== Islam, Islamism, and Collective Stereotyping ===
* 2013 — Mohsin Hamid: Islam Is Not a Monolith
[https://www.theguardian.com/global/2013/may/19/mohsin-hamid-islam-not-monolith | Mohsin Hamid | The Guardian | 2013]

=== Why Essentialist Thinking Becomes Dangerous ===
* December 18, 2012 — The Global Religious Landscape
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | December 18, 2012]

=== Sikh Identity, Nationalism, and Political Diversity ===
* August 6, 2012 — Who Are the Sikhs and What Are Their Beliefs?
[https://www.cnn.com/2012/08/05/us/religion-what-is-a-sikh | Moni Basu | CNN | August 6, 2012]

=== Why Essentialist Thinking Becomes Dangerous ===
* 2012 — Religion and Belief
[https://www.coe.int/en/web/compass/religion-and-belief | Council of Europe | Council of Europe | 2012]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2011 — Ratings of Essentialism for Eight Religious Identities
[https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3093246/ | Steven Heine, Emma Buchtel, and Ara Norenzayan | International Journal for the Psychology of Religion | 2011]

=== Religion, Citizenship, and Democratic Politics ===
* 2010 — Islamismism
[https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/06/07/islamismism | Pankaj Mishra | The New Yorker | 2010]

* 2009 — Religion and Politics
[https://iep.utm.edu/rel-poli/ | Christopher D. Callaway | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | 2009]

=== Christianity and Conflicting Political Traditions ===
* June 1, 2008 — Chapter 2: Social and Political Views
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2008/06/01/chapter-2-social-and-political-views/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | June 1, 2008]

* June 1, 2008 — Chapter 1: Religious Beliefs and Practices
[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2008/06/01/chapter-1-religious-beliefs-and-practices/ | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | June 1, 2008]

=== Religious Diversity and the Problem of Political Essentialism ===
* 2008 — Updated: Religious People Not Monolithic!
[https://religiondispatches.org/2008/10/20/updated-religious-people-not-monolithic | Candace Chellew-Hodge | Religion Dispatches | 2008]

=== African and Indigenous Religious Traditions ===
* 2006 — Religion and Politics in South Africa
[https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/posts/charlotte-drew-on-religion-and-politics-in-south-africa | Charlotte Drew | Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs | 2006]

=== Islam, State Power, and Competing Political Projects ===
* 2005 — Between the Global and the Local: Islamism, the Middle East, and Indonesia
[https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/20051101bubalo_fealy.pdf | Anthony Bubalo and Greg Fealy | Brookings Institution | 2005]

=== Religion, Citizenship, and Democratic Politics ===
* 2003 — Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith—Understanding Political and Religious Difference
[https://carnegie.org/publication/islam-a-mosaic-not-a-monolith/ | Carnegie Corporation of New York | Carnegie Corporation of New York | 2003]

=== Islam, Islamism, and Collective Stereotyping ===
* 2003 — Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith
[https://carnegie.org/publication/islam-a-mosaic-not-a-monolith/ | Vartan Gregorian | Carnegie Corporation of New York | 2003]