Segregation in the US: Difference between revisions

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  EJI researchers documented 4075 racial terror lynchings of African Americans in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia between 1877 and 1950—at least 800 more lynchings of Black people in these states than previously reported in the most comprehensive work done on lynching to date.
  EJI researchers documented 4075 racial terror lynchings of African Americans in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia between 1877 and 1950—at least 800 more lynchings of Black people in these states than previously reported in the most comprehensive work done on lynching to date.


=====INTRODUCTION=====
=====America’s history of racial inequality continues to haunt us. =====
[https://segregationinamerica.eji.org/report/introduction.html by eji]
[https://segregationinamerica.eji.org/report/introduction.html by eji]
  In the 1950s and 1960s, heroic civil rights activists staged a valiant revolt against racial inequality that compelled our nation to change some of its most racially offensive practices and policies. The Civil Rights Movement profoundly changed the character of American society and opened doors for people of color that had too long been barred by bigotry and ignorance. There has been substantial progress on a range of issues as a result of increased participation by non-white people in the political process. Diversity has become a demand that has strengthened the political, social, cultural, and economic landscape in significant and visible ways.
  In the 1950s and 1960s, heroic civil rights activists staged a valiant revolt against racial inequality that compelled our nation to change some of its most racially offensive practices and policies. The Civil Rights Movement profoundly changed the character of American society and opened doors for people of color that had too long been barred by bigotry and ignorance. There has been substantial progress on a range of issues as a result of increased participation by non-white people in the political process. Diversity has become a demand that has strengthened the political, social, cultural, and economic landscape in significant and visible ways.
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  Sixty years after Brown v. Board of Education, the question of how far we’ve come in eliminating segregated education is not a simple one. Gwen Ifill leads a discussion with Cheryl Brown Henderson of the Brown Foundation for Educational Equity, Excellence and Research, Sheryll Cashin of Georgetown University, Catherine Lhamon of the Department of Education and Ron Brownstein of Atlantic Media.
  Sixty years after Brown v. Board of Education, the question of how far we’ve come in eliminating segregated education is not a simple one. Gwen Ifill leads a discussion with Cheryl Brown Henderson of the Brown Foundation for Educational Equity, Excellence and Research, Sheryll Cashin of Georgetown University, Catherine Lhamon of the Department of Education and Ron Brownstein of Atlantic Media.


=====Introduction=====
=====Introduction ACLU=====
[https://www.aclu.org/about/aclu-history by ACLU History]
[https://www.aclu.org/about/aclu-history by ACLU History]
  In the years following World War I, America was gripped by the fear that the Communist Revolution that had taken place in Russia would spread to the United States. As is often the case when fear outweighs rational debate, civil liberties paid the price. In November 1919 and January 1920, in what notoriously became known as the “Palmer Raids,” Attorney General Mitchell Palmer began rounding up and deporting so-called radicals. Thousands of people were arrested without warrants and without regard to constitutional protections against unlawful search and seizure. Those arrested were brutally treated and held in horrible conditions.
  In the years following World War I, America was gripped by the fear that the Communist Revolution that had taken place in Russia would spread to the United States. As is often the case when fear outweighs rational debate, civil liberties paid the price. In November 1919 and January 1920, in what notoriously became known as the “Palmer Raids,” Attorney General Mitchell Palmer began rounding up and deporting so-called radicals. Thousands of people were arrested without warrants and without regard to constitutional protections against unlawful search and seizure. Those arrested were brutally treated and held in horrible conditions.
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[https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/02/learning/lesson-plans/still-separate-still-unequal-teaching-about-school-segregation-and-educational-inequality.html by Keith Meatto 2/5/19 The New York Times]
[https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/02/learning/lesson-plans/still-separate-still-unequal-teaching-about-school-segregation-and-educational-inequality.html by Keith Meatto 2/5/19 The New York Times]
  Racial segregation in public education has been illegal for 65 years in the United States. Yet American public schools remain largely separate and unequal — with profound consequences for students, especially students of color.
  Racial segregation in public education has been illegal for 65 years in the United States. Yet American public schools remain largely separate and unequal — with profound consequences for students, especially students of color.
=====The Best MuckReads on America’s Troubled History With Race=====
[https://www.propublica.org/article/the-best-muckreads-on-americas-troubled-history-with-race by  Adam Harris 24/2/16 PROPUBLICA]
There have been several events throughout American history that have, for some, signaled the beginning of a post-racial society. The election of Barack Obama to the office of President of the United States is the latest milestone. But the reality is, many believe that racism is still a big problem in the U.S.
=====Racial History of American Swimming Pools=====
[https://www.npr.org/2008/05/06/90213675/racial-history-of-american-swimming-pools by npr 6/5/08]
So there was a study released last week that caught my eye. According to USA Swimming, over 58 percent of African-American children can't swim. That's almost double the rate of white children. And African-American children drown at nearly three times the overall rate. That got us here at the BPP asking questions about, well, race and swimming. And it turns out there's a lot to say about the topic.
=====A vast wealth gap, driven by segregation, redlining, evictions and exclusion, separates black and white America.=====
[https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/racial-wealth-gap.html by The New York Times Magazine]
Elmore Bolling, whose brothers called him Buddy, was a kind of one-man economy in Lowndesboro, Ala. He leased a plantation, where he had a general store with a gas station out front and a catering business; he grew cotton, corn and sugar cane. He also owned a small fleet of trucks that ran livestock and made deliveries between Lowndesboro and Montgomery. At his peak, Bolling employed as many as 40 people, all of them black like him.
=====The black immigrant who challenged US segregation - nearly 190 years ago=====
[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-57946802 by Mariana Schreiber 21/7/21 BBC]
During the crossing, Harriett, who wasn't feeling well, tried to seek shelter with her daughter in an area of the ship exclusively for women, but their path was blocked. The reason? They were black, and only white women were allowed in the ladies' cabin, comfortable accommodation with private berths.
=====Blood And Betrayal In The Southwest=====
[https://www.npr.org/programs/latino-usa/520574914/blood-and-betrayal-in-the-southwest by npr 17/3/17]
Latino USA looks into the long and little-told history of segregation, discrimination, and state-sanctioned violence towards Mexicans and Mexican-Americans in the Southwest.
=====https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/the-rope-the-forgotten-history-of-
segregated-rock-roll-concerts-126235/=====
[https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/the-rope-the-forgotten-history-of-segregated-rock-roll-concerts-126235/ by Steve Knopper 22/2/21 RollingStone]
One night in the late 1950s, the Flamingos’ bus pulled up to a concert hall in Birmingham, Alabama, and a row of 30 to 50 police officers holding rifles and billy clubs was waiting for them. The cops escorted the six-member doo-wop group, famous for “I Only Have Eyes for You” and “The Ladder of Love,” to its dressing room and gave strict instructions.
=====From segregation to Selma: View iconic photos from the Civil Rights movement=====
[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/road-selma-photos-civil-rights-movement by News Desk 8/3/15]
“So much of our turbulent history – the stain of slavery and anguish of civil war, the yoke of segregation and tyranny of Jim Crow, the death of four little girls in Birmingham, and the dream of a Baptist preacher – met on this bridge,” he said. “It was not a clash of armies, but a clash of wills; a contest to determine the meaning of America.”
=====Preserving history of Mexican American school segregation=====
[https://www.axios.com/2021/12/09/preserving-history-latino-school-segregation by Russell Contreras 9/12/21 AXIOS]
Activists in the small town of Marfa, Texas, are working to get national recognition for a building once used as a segregated school for Mexican American students, some of who were used as extras in the 1956 movie, "Giant."
=====African Americans in Las Vegas=====
[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/lasvegas-african-americans/ by PBS Shows]
From the 1950s to the early 1960s, in the midst of the economic boom that was occurring in America, Las Vegas experienced spectacular growth. Tourists supplied the city with some $200 million in profits every year. The number of resorts on the Strip was increasing rapidly, and the city proclaimed itself the "Entertainment Capital" of the country. However, outside of the neon glow of downtown Las Vegas, across the Fremont Street railroad tracks, lay the reality of racial segregation.
=====Profiles in perseverance=====
[https://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2021/02/us/little-known-black-history-figures/ by CNN]
Every Black History Month, we tend to celebrate the same cast of historic figures. They are the civil rights leaders and abolitionists whose faces we see plastered on calendars and postage stamps. They resurface each February when the nation commemorates African Americans who have transformed America.
=====Exploring the AMA’s History of Discrimination=====
[https://www.propublica.org/article/exploring-the-amas-history-of-discrimination-716 by Jonathan Sidhu 16/7/08 PROPUBLICA]
Last Thursday, the American Medical Association apologized for its history of discrimination against African-American physicians. The apology comes on the heels of a JAMA paper published ($) by a panel of independent experts, which among other things detailed how the AMA worked to close down African-American medical schools.
=====I’m a black man who moved to the Deep South. Here’s what it’s teaching me about race.=====
[https://www.vox.com/first-person/2017/10/31/16571238/black-man-deep-south-race by Jemar Tisby 4/1/19  Vox]
The South represents slavery and bigotry. Living here has emboldened me like nowhere else I’ve been before.
=====Report: School Segregation Is Back, 60 Years After “Brown”=====
[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/report-school-segregation-is-back-60-years-after-brown/ by Sarah Childress 15/5/14 FRONTLINE]
The report found that re-segregation has happened gradually, amid court rulings allowing states to set aside integration orders, and a growing Latino population, which has experienced the most dramatic increase in segregation.
=====Barack Obama legacy: Did he improve US race relations?=====
[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-38536668 by Nick Bryant 10/1/17 BBC]
When in the 1950s, a former TV executive by the name of E Frederic Morrow became the first black White House aide not to have a job description that included turning down beds, polishing shoes or serving drinks with a deferential bow, he was prohibited from ever being alone in the same room as a white woman.
=====The white Southerners who fought US segregation=====
[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-47477354 by BBC 12/3/19]
The black neighbourhood of Greenville in segregated 1960s Mississippi had never seen anything like it. Neither had Mr Gorton when he encountered white people praying alongside their black brethren during an impromptu street-side Pentecostal revival.
=====Claudette Colvin: The 15-year-old who came before Rosa Parks=====
[https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-43171799 by Taylor-Dior Rumble 10/3/18 BBC]
In March 1955, nine months before Rosa Parks defied segregation laws by refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, 15-year-old Claudette Colvin did exactly the same thing. Eclipsed by Parks, her act of defiance was largely ignored for many years. She herself didn't talk about it much, but she spoke recently to the BBC.
=====Case in Point=====
[https://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/detective/tukufu-zuberi/ by PBS Shows]
America has a long history of social upheaval and cultural mood swings. These shifts leave clear signs of their passing. The trick is knowing how to read the signs, and interpret their meaning.
=====Wernher von Braun’s Record on Civil Rights=====
[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/chasing-moon-von-braun-record-on-civil-rights/ by Steven Moss and Richard Paul PBS Shows]
In June 1965, Alabama governor George C. Wallace scheduled a tour of NASA’s Huntsville, Alabama test site, the Marshall Space Flight Center. The visit was part of a road trip he organized for small town newspaper editors, designed to show them “the real Alabama.” Wallace had come into office promising "segregation now, segregation tomorrow and segregation forever" and backed up that promise by standing in the doorway of the University of Alabama to personally block African-American students from enrolling.
=====Next time someone questions America’s history of racism, show them this video=====
[https://www.vox.com/2015/7/8/8911573/racism-slavery-mass-incarceration by German Lopez 8/7/15 Vox]
America has a long history of systemic racism: From the dehumanization of black people to justify slavery to the policies of segregation and mass incarceration that followed emancipation, the country has always made it difficult for many minorities to rise out of their literal and figurative shackles.
=====This is how systemic racism is hampering progress around the world=====
[https://www.weforum.org/stories/2020/09/systemic-racism-economic-progress/ by WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM 16/9/20]
George Floyd. Breonna Taylor. Ahmaud Arbery. Three Black Americans killed in acts that reminded the world that systemic racism is still very real in the United States. The early summer protests that followed, though sparked by those deaths, were manifestations of deeper anger and despair at the racism that has plagued the country since its founding.
=====What is critical race theory?=====
[https://www.weforum.org/stories/2022/02/what-is-critical-race-theory/ by WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM 20/8/25]
Black History Month 2022 is being marked as American society grapples with the significance of Black history, with discussions around the relevance and necessity of critical race theory taking centre stage. This reckoning with racism was brought to the forefront of American consciousness in the aftermath of George Floyd's death at the hands of police officers in May 2020.
====='Segregated Skies' tells the story of the first Black pilot for a commercial airline=====
[https://www.npr.org/2022/02/18/1080731249/segregated-skies-tells-the-story-of-the-first-black-pilot-for-a-commercial-airli by Elizabeth Blair 18/2/22 npr]
When American Airlines hired David Harris in 1964, he became the first African American pilot for a commercial airline. The story of how he broke the color barrier in the clouds is the subject of the young adult book Segregated Skies by Pulitzer Prize winner Michael Cottman.
=====Green Book builds a feel-good comedy atop an artifact of shameful segregation. Yikes.=====
[https://www.vox.com/2018/11/16/18069756/green-book-review-racism-schomburg-segregation-golden-globes by Alissa Wilkinson 6/1/19 Vox]
The movie is named after guides published for black travelers in segregated America. But its spin is all Hollywood.
=====Know your history: Understanding racism in the US=====
[https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2015/8/15/know-your-history-understanding-racism-in-the-us by  A'Lelia Bundles 15/8.15 ALJAZEERA]
We cannot truly fathom how a minor traffic stop in Cincinnati could result in a white campus police officer blowing out the brains of an unarmed black man unless we delve into the role race has played in law enforcement from the enactment of the federal Fugitive Slave Act in 1850 to today’s mandatory minimum sentencing statutes.
====='Segregation Forever': A Fiery Pledge Forgiven, But Not Forgotten=====
[https://www.npr.org/2013/01/14/169080969/segregation-forever-a-fiery-pledge-forgiven-but-not-forgotten by Radio Diaries 10/1/13 npr]
It was just a single line in a speech given 50 years ago today. But that one phrase, "segregation now, segregation tomorrow and segregation forever," is remembered as one of the most vehement rallying cries against racial equality in American history.
=====The segregation-era travel guide that saved black Americans from having to sleep in their cars=====
[https://www.vox.com/identities/2015/11/29/9813966/green-book-segregation-history by Dara Lind 22/11/16 Vox]
=====Black cemeteries are reflection of deep segregation history=====
[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/black-cemeteries-are-reflection-of-deep-segregation-history-black-athens-chicago-davis-georgia-b1839737.html by INDEPENDENT 29/4/21]
As a child, Linda Davis and her mother broke clay pots over the gravesites of their ancestors, allowing the flowers in them to take root.
When she returned to Brooklyn Cemetery in Athens Georgia decades later in 2009, her grandparents' temporary grave markers were lost, and shrubs and overgrowth blanketed the site. But it still felt like home to Davis, and she knew then it was up to her to restore the cemetery.
=====Federal courthouse renamed after Latino family in segregation fight=====
[https://www.axios.com/2025/01/07/federal-courthouse-renamed-mendez-latino-segregation by Russell Contreras 6/1/25 AXIOS]
President Biden has signed a bill that renames the U.S. Courthouse in Los Angeles after the Latino parents who helped end legal school segregation in California and set up the 1954 landmark Brown vs. Board of Education ruling.
=====An American Nightmare=====
[https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/98/05/03/reviews/980503.03ayrest.html?_r=1&oref=slogin by New York Times]
It was exactly a century ago this year that Sam Hose left his home in rural Georgia for Atlanta. A literate and hard-working black man needing money to help care for his ill mother and his mentally retarded brother, Hose ended up laboring for a white landlord on a plantation outside the city. In the spring of the next year, the two had a falling out over wages. The white man threatened the black man with a pistol and the black man defended himself with the ax he was using to chop wood. Hose accidentally killed his employer and fled to his mother's cabin.
=====I Went in Search of Abandoned African-American Cemeteries=====
[https://www.propublica.org/article/abandoned-african-american-cemeteries-illinois-jerrel-floyd by  Jerrel Floyd 29/6/18 PROPUBLICA]
To get to St. George Cemetery, especially its oldest section, you have to make your way past branches and thorns, across the weathered hills and over downed trees. Eventually, dozens of scattered headstones, some of them knocked over, come into view. And there, sitting upright, is the gravestone of William Chapman, an African-American veteran of the Civil War who died March 21, 1904.
=====Living Apart: How the Government Betrayed a Landmark Civil Rights Law=====
[https://www.propublica.org/article/living-apart-how-the-government-betrayed-a-landmark-civil-rights-law by  Nikole Hannah-Jones 25/6/15 PROPUBLICA]
On Wednesday, the administration announced an effort it said would put some muscle behind the slogan, saying it would enforce a new set of rules involving federally subsidized housing that require cities and counties to actively document and combat segregation in their communities.
=====It’s been 70 years since Brown v. Board of Education. The US is still trying to achieve the promise of integration.=====
[https://edition.cnn.com/2024/05/17/us/school-segregation-brown-v-board-dg by Chandelis Duster, Nicquel Terry Ellis and Alex Leeds Matthews 17/5/24 CNN]
As the nation commemorates the ruling’s 70th anniversary, civil rights leaders and advocates tell CNN the case may have paved the way for more equal and integrated schools, but fierce – and continued – opposition to integration means the ruling in no way assured the end of segregated education in the United States.
=====“Get out, little punks”: recent racist incidents at swimming pools have a long history=====
[https://www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2018/7/11/17556342/adam-bloom-pool-patrol-paula-video-racist by  Jeff Wiltse 11/7/18 Vox]
How swimming pools became a flashpoint of racial tension in America.
=====Racial segregation in the United States=====
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States by WIKIPEDIA]
Facilities and services such as housing, healthcare, education, employment, and transportation have been systematically separated in the United States based on racial categorizations. Notably, racial segregation in the United States was the legally and/or socially enforced separation of African Americans from whites, as well as the separation of other ethnic minorities from majority communities.
=====Segregation in the United States=====
[https://www.history.com/articles/segregation-united-states by HISTORY 28/5/25]
Segregation is the practice of requiring separate housing, education and other services for people of color. Segregation was made law several times in 19th- and 20th-century America as some believed that Black and white people were incapable of coexisting.
=====A Century of Racial Segregation=====
[https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-segregation.html by LIBRARY]
After the abolition of slavery in the United States, three Constitutional amendments were passed to grant newly freed African Americans legal status: the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery, the Fourteenth provided citizenship, and the Fifteenth guaranteed the right to vote. In spite of these amendments and civil rights acts to enforce the amendments, between 1873 and 1883 the Supreme Court handed down a series of decisions that virtually nullified the work of Congress during Reconstruction.
=====Segregation in American history=====
[https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/segregation-american-history by Smallwood, James 2024 EBSCO]
Segregation in American history refers to the systemic separation of people based on race, primarily impacting African Americans and other people of color, and was a significant barrier to achieving the ideals of liberty, freedom, and equality in the United States.
=====The history of segregation in the USA=====
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=31x0BQzR6Pc by HUB Scuola YouTube]
=====Segregation in America=====
[https://eji.org/reports/segregation-in-america/ by EJI]
Segregation in America documents how millions of white Americans joined a mass movement of committed, unwavering, and often violent opposition to the Civil Rights Movement. EJI believes that understanding this mass opposition to racial equality, integration, and civil rights is central to confronting the continuing challenges of racial inequality today.
=====A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States: Reconstruction and Jim Crow Eras=====
[https://library.law.howard.edu/civilrightshistory/blackrights/jimcrow by HOWARD UNIVERSITY]
This guide focuses on the civil rights that various groups have fought for within the United States.
=====racial segregation=====
[https://www.britannica.com/topic/racial-segregation by Britannica]
racial segregation, the practice of restricting people to certain circumscribed areas of residence or to separate institutions (e.g., schools, churches) and facilities (parks, playgrounds, restaurants, restrooms) on the basis of race or alleged race. Racial segregation provides a means of maintaining the economic advantages and superior social status of the politically dominant group, and in recent times it has been employed primarily by white populations to maintain their ascendancy over other groups by means of legal and social colour bars. Historically, however, various conquerors—among them Asian Mongols, African Bantus, and American Aztecs—practiced discrimination involving the segregation of subject races.
=====The Struggle Against Segregated Education=====
[https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/struggle-against-segregated-education by Smithsonian]
The road to desegregated education in the United States was a long and difficult one, and stands as a testament to the remarkable power, tenacity, and moral clarity of great African American trailblazers who refused to settle for the inherent injustice of “separate but equal.”
=====Jim Crow Laws and Racial Segregation=====
[https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/eras/civil-war-reconstruction/jim-crow-laws-andracial-segregation/ by SOCIAL WELFARE]
  Immediately following the Civil War and adoption of the 13th Amendment, most states of the former Confederacy adopted Black Codes, laws modeled on former slave laws. These laws were intended to limit the new freedom of emancipated African Americans by restricting their movement and by forcing them into a labor economy based on low wages and debt. Vagrancy laws allowed blacks to be arrested for minor infractions. A system of penal labor known as convict leasing was established at this time. Black men convicted for vagrancy would be used as unpaid laborers, and thus effectively re-enslaved.
=====The Era of Segregation 1877–1968=====
[https://www.searchablemuseum.com/era-of-segregation/ by NATIONAL MUSEUM]
When Reconstruction ended in 1877, 90% of African Americans lived in the South. As white southerners regained political control in state and local governments, they passed new laws restricting African Americans. The new laws segregated Black and white people and condemned African Americans to an inferior and second-class citizenship. In response, African Americans created institutions that sustained their communities.
=====A history of Segregation In The United States=====
[https://www.irp.wisc.edu/wp/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Focus-34-4a.pdf by Focus]
While civil rights efforts have worked to abolish segregation in
education and in public spaces from buses to lunch counters to
swimming pools, some 50 years after the Civil Rights Movement
residential segregation remains in virtually every metropolitan
area in the United States.
=====A History of Private Schools and Race=====
[https://southerneducation.org/publications/history-of-private-schools-and-race-in-the-american-south/ by SOUTHERN EDUCATION FOUNDATION]
Private schools may have a long, honorable tradition in America that goes back to colonial times, but that tradition ended—at least in the American South—in the last half of the 20th century when they were used as safe havens for Southern Whites to escape the effects of the impending and ongoing desegregation mandates.
=====Segregation Definition, History & Examples=====
[https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-segregation-definition-facts-timeline.html by Study.com]
What is segregation? Learn the the meaning and definitions of segregation as well as segregation facts. See segregation examples and a timeline.
=====A 'Forgotten History' Of How The U.S. Government Segregated America=====
[https://www.npr.org/2017/05/03/526655831/a-forgotten-history-of-how-the-u-s-government-segregated-america by Terry Gross 3/5/17 npr]
In 1933, faced with a housing shortage, the federal government began a program explicitly designed to increase — and segregate — America's housing stock. Author Richard Rothstein says the housing programs begun under the New Deal were tantamount to a "state-sponsored system of segregation."
=====segregation=====
[https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/freedom/1865-1917/essays/segregation.htm by TeacherServe]
Racial segregation was a system derived from the efforts of white Americans to keep African Americans in a subordinate status by denying them equal access to public facilities and ensuring that blacks lived apart from whites. During the era of slavery, most African Americans resided in the South, mainly in rural areas.
=====What was Jim Crow=====
[https://jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu/what.htm by JIM CROW MUSEUM]
Jim Crow was the name of the racial caste system which operated primarily, but not exclusively in southern and border states, between 1877 and the mid-1960s. Jim Crow was more than a series of rigid anti-black laws. It was a way of life.
=====School Segregation in the United States: A Timeline Through History=====
[https://www.teenvogue.com/story/school-segregation-us-history-timeline by Jameelah Nasheed 21/2/23 teenVOGUE]
So much of who we are and who we can become starts in the classroom. Education can be a life-changing part of our story, impacting our career path, salary, and even the lives of the generations that follow.
=====Chicago’s 250 Year History of Segregation=====
[https://www.chicagoreporter.com/chicagos-250-year-history-of-segregation/ by Zachary Leiter 30/8/23 THE CHICAGO REPORTER]
That last fact is key, because in the United States, where you live determines your school choices, your social services, your job opportunities, and your safety. It determines how heavily you’re policed, how easy it is to access fresh food, and how much government investment your community receives. It determines whether you breathe clean air and have access to clean water.
=====The Racial Segregation of American Cities Was Anything but Accidental=====
[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-federal-government-intentionally-racially-segregated-american-cities-180963494/ by Katie Nodjimbadem 30/5/17 Smithsonian]
It’s not surprising to anyone who has lived in or visited a major American metropolitan region that the nation’s cities tend to be organized in their own particular racial pattern. In Chicago, it’s a north/south divide. In Austin, it’s west/east. In some cities, it’s a division based around infrastructure, as with Detroit’s 8 Mile Road. In other cities, nature—such as Washington, D.C.’s Anacostia River—is the barrier. Sometimes these divisions are man-made, sometimes natural, but none are coincidental.
=====segregation=====
[https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/segregation by Legal Information Institute]
Segregation is the action of separating people, historically on the basis of race and/or gender. Segregation implies the physical separation of people in everyday activities, in professional life, and in the exercise of civil rights.
=====Modern Segregation=====
[https://www.epi.org/publication/modern-segregation/ by Richard Rothstein 6/3/24 Economic Policy Institute]
We cannot substantially improve the performance of the poorest African American students – the “truly disadvantaged,” in William Julius Wilson’s phrase – by school reform alone. It must be addressed primarily by improving the social and economic conditions that bring too many children to school unprepared to take advantage of what schools have to offer.
=====Segregation in Health Care=====
[https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/issue/segregation-health-care by AMA Journal of Ethics]
Structural racism is deeply embedded in US health care. Legally sanctioned racial segregation in hospitals ended with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, with fiscally incentivized enforcement through Medicare payment structures implemented in 1966. Yet, practices such as sorting patients by insurance status still perpetuate de facto racial and class segregation, especially in academic health centers.
=====Black history in the United States: Key moments from slavery to George Floyd Published=====
[https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/52963325 by BBC 9/6/20]
The 46-year-old died after being arrested, and pinned to the ground, by police officers in the US city of Minneapolis.
=====The Jim Crow Era | A Stain on America's Past=====
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUNiuYJxfcY by he Great Courses YouTube]
An African American named Homer Plessy predated Rosa Parks' famous refusal to comply with racist transportation laws by more than 60 years. The Supreme Court upheld his conviction for sitting in a whites-only train car in Plessy v. Ferguson, leading to the Jim Crow era. Discover hard history and how "separate but equal" was far from equal.
=====Segregation=====
[https://www.britannica.com/video/Did-You-Know-Civil-Rights-Movement-1954/-203240 by Britannica]
NARRATOR: In 1896 the United States Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation was legal. This meant that African Americans could be segregated, or separated, from whites in public places, such as schools. The Supreme Court reversed that decision in 1954. It ruled that separate schools for blacks and whites were unequal and, therefore, against the law.
=====Jim Crow laws=====
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws by WIKIPEDIA]
The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws introduced in the Southern United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that enforced racial segregation. The origin of the term "Jim Crow" is obscure, but probably refers to slave songs that refer to an African dance called "Jump Jim Crow."
=====Segregation in Housing and Education=====
[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK565026/ by NIH]
Richard Rothstein, Distinguished Fellow at the Economics Policy Institute, spoke on ways in which the past has determined race-based social inequality today in the United States. He focused his presentation on federal housing policies that have resulted in residential segregation, countering the widely held assertion that these housing patterns are “de facto” because they emerged from individual or market-based activity.
=====Black History Milestones: Timeline=====
[https://www.history.com/articles/black-history-milestones by HISTORY]
To satisfy the labor needs of the rapidly growing North American colonies, white European settlers turned in the early 17th century from indentured servants (mostly poorer Europeans) to a cheaper, more plentiful labor source: enslaved Africans. After 1619, when a Dutch ship brought 20 Africans ashore at the British colony of Jamestown, Virginia, slavery spread quickly through the American colonies.
=====The Troubled History of American Education after the Brown Decision=====
[https://www.oah.org/tah/february-3/the-troubled-history-of-american-education-after-the-brown-decision/ by OAH]
On May 17, 1954, when the Supreme Court ruled in the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision that racial segregation in the public schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment, it sparked national reactions ranging from elation to rage. As some Americans celebrated this important ruling and its impact on democracy, their early belief in Brown’s power to eliminate racial inequities in the public schools now reflects a hopeful naiveté and the beginning of a decades-long struggle to fulfill its promise.
=====segregation=====
[https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/segregation/ by Edward A. Hatfield 1/7/07 New Georgia ENCYCLOPEDIA]
Beginning in the 1890s, Georgia and other southern states passed a wide variety of Jim Crow laws that mandated racial segregation or separation in public facilities and effectively codified the region’s tradition of white supremacy.
=====The Moment When Four Students Sat Down to Take a Stand=====
[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/lessons-worth-learning-moment-greensboro-four-sat-down-lunch-counter-180974087/ by Christopher Wilson 16/12/21 Smithsonian]
Christopher Wilson is Supervisory Curator and Chair of the Division of Home and Community Life at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History. He studies the Black Freedom Struggle and has created several major program series at the Smithsonian including the award-winning educational theater program History Alive!, the National Youth Summit, and the History Film Forum.
=====The 1619 Project=====
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_1619_Project by WIKIPEDIA]
The 1619 Project is a long-form journalistic revisionist historiographical work that takes a critical view of traditionally revered figures and events in American history, including the Patriots in the American Revolution, the Founding Fathers, along with Abraham Lincoln and the Union during the Civil War.[1][2][3][4] It was developed by Nikole Hannah-Jones, writers from The New York Times, and The New York Times Magazine.
=====Sundown town=====
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundown_town by WIKIPEDIA]
Sundown towns, also known as sunset towns, gray towns, or sundowner towns, were all-White municipalities or neighborhoods in the United States that practiced a form of racial segregation by excluding non-whites via some combination of discriminatory local laws, intimidation or violence. They were most prevalent before the 1950s. The term came into use because of signs that directed "colored people" to leave town by sundown.[1]
=====Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism=====
[https://www.zinnedproject.org/materials/sundown-towns/ by ZINN EDUCATION PROJECT]
“Don’t let the sun go down on you in this town.” We equate these words with the Jim Crow South but, in a sweeping analysis of American residential patterns, award-winning and bestselling author James W. Loewen demonstrates that strict racial exclusion was the norm in towns and villages across the United States, from sea to shining sea, for much of the twentieth century.
=====Sundown Towns=====
[https://justice.tougaloo.edu/sundown-towns/ by HISTORY & SOCIAL JUSTICE]
From Maine to California, thousands of communities kept out African Americans (or sometimes Chinese Americans, Jewish Americans, etc.) by force, law, or custom. These communities are sometimes called “sundown towns” because some of them posted signs at their city limits reading, typically, “Nigger, Don’t Let The Sun Go Down On You In.
=====sundown town=====
[https://www.britannica.com/place/sundown-town by Will Gosner  10/10/25 Britannica]
sundown town, in U.S. history, a town that excluded nonwhite people—most frequently African Americans—from remaining in town after sunset. More generally, sundown town is used to describe a place where the resident population was through deliberate action made to be overwhelmingly composed of white people.
=====Sundown Towns=====
[https://blackpast.org/african-american-history/sundown-towns/ by Ross Coen 24/8/20 BLACKPAST]
Sundown Towns are all-white communities, neighborhoods, or counties that exclude Blacks and other minorities through the use of discriminatory laws, harassment, and threats or use of violence. The name derives from the posted and verbal warnings issued to Blacks that although they might be allowed to work or travel in a community during the daytime, they must leave by sundown.
=====Structural racism through Sundown towns and its relationship to COVID-19 local risk and racial and ethnic diversity=====
[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335523001511 by Yulin Hswen ScienceDirect]
“Sundown towns” across the US prevented racial and ethnic minorities from living and working within their borders as they forced minorities to leave these towns after sunset. The objective of this study was to explore the relationship between sundown town status, COVID-19 local risk index and racial and ethnic diversity. A multi-level hierarchical model was used to examine the effect of historical segregation through sundown towns status on present day COVID-19 local risk index and city-level diversity.
=====Historical Shadows: The Links between Sundown Towns and Contemporary Black–White Inequality=====
[https://www.asanet.org/wp-content/uploads/attach/journals/jul19srefeature.pdf by Heather A. O’Connell1]
I contribute to our understanding of black–white inequality in the United States by assessing the legacy of
“sundown towns.” Sundown towns are places that restricted who could live there based on ideas about
race. The often-violent tactics employed to create and maintain all-white spaces reshaped dramatically
the demographic and social landscape of the non-South. I extend previous research on sundown towns
by examining their association with contemporary black–white economic inequality. In addition, I advance
a new theoretical perspective to explain how the history associated with sundown towns contributes to
contemporary inequality, namely large-scale segregation. To assess the contemporary impact of sundown
history
=====Defining Sundown Towns=====
[https://academyhealth.org/blog/2024-08/legacy-sundown-towns-persistent-force-structural-inequities-health by Leia Belt, M.A., Ph.D. 29/8/24 Academy Health]
The legacy of sundown towns—any organized jurisdictions that employed violence to enforce exclusionary and segregation policies against Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC)—is not merely a concealed relic of a racist past but a persistent force perpetuating structural inequities that contribute to ongoing health disparities. Because they are often seen as shameful and concealed from American history, sundown towns—most prevalent in the Midwest and the West—are frequently excluded from discussions of places with a legacy of structural violence and segregation. Incorporating measures of sundown town histories into health services research (HSR) will enable research, policy and interventions to identify the enduring upstream root causes of health inequities, even in rural and data restricted areas.
=====Sundown Towns and Racial Exclusion: The Southern White Diaspora and the "Great Retreat"=====
[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/pandp.20221104 by AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION]
This paper studies the rise of sundown towns—places where Blacks and other minorities were excluded after dark—outside the South after 1890. We provide a new dataset on the timing of sundown town establishment using full count census records. Using a shift-share instrumental variables approach, we show that the presence of Southern Whites is causally related to the appearance of sundown towns, with lynchings and the establishment of KKK chapters as plausible mechanisms for racial exclusion.
=====A national data set of historical US sundown towns for quantitative analysis=====
[https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-024-04330-9 by David Rigby 8/1/25 scientific reports]
We present a new national data set of historical sundown towns in the United States linked to contemporary spatial information – i.e., the Historical Sundown Towns Linked to US Census Geographies database. Sundown towns are places that once enacted legal or conventional practices meant to restrict the movement or residency of Black people and other people of color within their borders.
=====List of sundown towns in the United States=====
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sundown_towns_in_the_United_States by WIKIPEDIA]
A sundown town is a municipality or neighborhood within the United States that practices or once practiced a form of racial segregation characterized by intimidation, hostility, or violence among White people directed toward non-Whites, especially against African Americans. The term "sundown town" derives from the practice of White towns then erecting signage alerting non-Whites to vacate the area before sundown.
=====Sundown Towns=====
[https://www.prrac.org/newsletters/novdec2005.pdf by PRRAC]
Between 1890 and 1968, thousands
of towns across the United States drove
out their black populations or took steps
to forbid African Americans from living in them. Thus were created “sundown towns,” so named because many
marked their city limits with signs typically reading, “Nigger, Don’t Let The
Sun Go Down On You In
=====Sundown Towns Are Still A Problem For Black Drivers=====
[https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/adeonibada/sundown-towns-racism-black-drivers-tiktok by Ade Onibada 22/7/21 BuzzFeedNews]
When 30-year-old hiker Marco Williams journeyed from his home in Prince George’s County, Maryland, to visit Devil’s Bathtub in deep Virginia in June of last year, the outdoor enthusiast never imagined that a stop for gas would present him with a warning that potentially saved his life.
=====Historical Database of Sundown Towns=====
[https://landtrustalliance.org/resources/learn/explore/historical-database-of-sundown-towns by James W. Lowewen 2/8/24 Land Trust Alliance]
The world’s only registry of sundown towns, entire communities that for decades was all-white on purpose. The site contains images, tips for teaching, and strategies for transcending its past and building good race relations.
=====AP Road Trip: Racial tensions in America’s ‘sundown towns’=====
[https://apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-race-and-ethnicity-violence-db28a9aaa3b800d91b65dc11a6b12c4c by TIM SULLIVAN and NOREEN NASIR 13/10/20 AP]
VIENNA, Ill. (AP) — Ask around this time-battered Midwestern town, with its empty storefronts, dusty antique shops and businesses that have migrated toward the interstate, and nearly everyone will tell you that Black and white residents get along really well.
=====Sundown towns - Washington State=====
[https://depts.washington.edu/covenants/sundown_towns.shtml by Civil Rights and Labor History Consortium / University of Washington]
Black people were not allowed to live in many towns and suburbs in Washington state during the era before the National Fair Housing Act (1968) and some towns operated with unofficial sundown rules. African Americans might work in the community but were expected to leave in the evening. Black men would be harrassed after dark, either by law enforcement or by white residents, typically young men in cars. Kennewick was the most notorious sundown town in Washington.
=====The Importance of Sundown Towns=====
[https://sundown.tougaloo.edu/content/sundown-introduction.pdf]
ANNA IS A TOWN of about 7,000 people, including adjoining Jonesboro.
The twin towns lie about 35 miles north of Cairo, in southern Illinois. In
1909, in the aftermath of a horrific nearby “spectacle lynching,” Anna and
Jonesboro expelled their African Americans. Both cities have been all-white
ever since.1 Nearly a century later, “Anna” is still considered by its residents
and by citizens of nearby towns to mean “Ain’t No Niggers Allowed,” the
acronym the convenience store clerk confirmed in 2001.
=====Sundown Towns: 'Hiding' Racism Right in the Open=====
[https://history.howstuffworks.com/american-history/sundown-towns.htm by John Donovan howstuffworks]
At a certain time in American history, if you happened to be of a certain racial heritage — that is to say, not white — it was probably best not to hang around after dark in certain cities and certain places. It was possibly dangerous. Sometimes deadly.
=====Racial Exclusion in Oregon=====
[https://oregonremembrance.org/sunrise-project/the-history/ by History]
When Oregon became a state in 1859, it entered into the Union with Black exclusionary laws, essentially making it a “whites only state.” In 1890, 17 of Oregon’s 32 counties had 0-10 African Americans living in them.
=====What is a Sundown Town? A Dark History of Exclusion=====
[https://greenbookglobal.com/travel-the-world/what-is-a-sundown-town/ by GREEN BOOK]
Few Americans know the term “sundown town,” yet the phenomenon is ubiquitous in our country’s history. So what is a sundown town? It is any municipality that uses intimidation to deliberately exclude non-white people from its borders after sunset.
=====It’s Time for Sundown Towns to Become a More Visible Part of Illinois History. But How?=====
[https://www.propublica.org/article/sundown-towns-illinois-history by Logan Jaffe 21/2/20 PROPUBLICA]
I was in Springfield this week to talk about my reporting in Anna, Illinois, and sundown towns like Anna. My talk was held at the Springfield public library — which, I must point out, is officially named Lincoln Library, The Public Library of Springfield, Illinois. It was hosted by the Sangamon County Historical Society in partnership with the Springfield and Central Illinois African American History Museum, and, between those two organizations, the room was packed!
=====Sundown towns : a hidden dimension of American racism / James W. Loewen.=====
[https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/215868?ln=en by UC Berkeley Law Library Catalog]
Loewen (emeritus, sociology, U. of Vermont) exposes the history and persistence of "sundown towns," so-named for the signs often found at their corporate limits warning African Americans and other minorities not to be found in the town after dusk. He historically situates the rise of the sundown town movement in the years following the Civil War; describes the mechanisms of violence, threats, law, and policy that were used to force minorities out of Northern and Western towns into the big cities; and charts the continued existence of such communities.
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