@@ Line 38: / Line 38: @@
   EJI researchers documented 4075 racial terror lynchings of African Americans in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia between 1877 and 1950—at least 800 more lynchings of Black people in these states than previously reported in the most comprehensive work done on lynching to date.
-=====INTRODUCTION=====
+=====America’s history of racial inequality continues to haunt us. =====
 [https://segregationinamerica.eji.org/report/introduction.html by eji]
   In the 1950s and 1960s, heroic civil rights activists staged a valiant revolt against racial inequality that compelled our nation to change some of its most racially offensive practices and policies. The Civil Rights Movement profoundly changed the character of American society and opened doors for people of color that had too long been barred by bigotry and ignorance. There has been substantial progress on a range of issues as a result of increased participation by non-white people in the political process. Diversity has become a demand that has strengthened the political, social, cultural, and economic landscape in significant and visible ways.
@@ Line 50: / Line 50: @@
   Sixty years after Brown v. Board of Education, the question of how far we’ve come in eliminating segregated education is not a simple one. Gwen Ifill leads a discussion with Cheryl Brown Henderson of the Brown Foundation for Educational Equity, Excellence and Research, Sheryll Cashin of Georgetown University, Catherine Lhamon of the Department of Education and Ron Brownstein of Atlantic Media.
-=====Introduction=====
+=====Introduction ACLU=====
 [https://www.aclu.org/about/aclu-history by ACLU History]
   In the years following World War I, America was gripped by the fear that the Communist Revolution that had taken place in Russia would spread to the United States. As is often the case when fear outweighs rational debate, civil liberties paid the price. In November 1919 and January 1920, in what notoriously became known as the “Palmer Raids,” Attorney General Mitchell Palmer began rounding up and deporting so-called radicals. Thousands of people were arrested without warrants and without regard to constitutional protections against unlawful search and seizure. Those arrested were brutally treated and held in horrible conditions.
@@ Line 442: / Line 442: @@
   When Reconstruction ended in 1877, 90% of African Americans lived in the South. As white southerners regained political control in state and local governments, they passed new laws restricting African Americans. The new laws segregated Black and white people and condemned African Americans to an inferior and second-class citizenship. In response, African Americans created institutions that sustained their communities.
-====A history of Segregation In The United States=====
+=====A history of Segregation In The United States=====
 [https://www.irp.wisc.edu/wp/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Focus-34-4a.pdf by Focus]
   While civil rights efforts have worked to abolish segregation in
@@ Line 461: / Line 461: @@
 [https://www.npr.org/2017/05/03/526655831/a-forgotten-history-of-how-the-u-s-government-segregated-america by Terry Gross 3/5/17 npr]
   In 1933, faced with a housing shortage, the federal government began a program explicitly designed to increase — and segregate — America's housing stock. Author Richard Rothstein says the housing programs begun under the New Deal were tantamount to a "state-sponsored system of segregation."
+=====segregation=====
+[https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/freedom/1865-1917/essays/segregation.htm by TeacherServe]
+ Racial segregation was a system derived from the efforts of white Americans to keep African Americans in a subordinate status by denying them equal access to public facilities and ensuring that blacks lived apart from whites. During the era of slavery, most African Americans resided in the South, mainly in rural areas.
+=====What was Jim Crow=====
+[https://jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu/what.htm by JIM CROW MUSEUM]
+ Jim Crow was the name of the racial caste system which operated primarily, but not exclusively in southern and border states, between 1877 and the mid-1960s. Jim Crow was more than a series of rigid anti-black laws. It was a way of life.
+=====School Segregation in the United States: A Timeline Through History=====
+[https://www.teenvogue.com/story/school-segregation-us-history-timeline by Jameelah Nasheed 21/2/23 teenVOGUE]
+ So much of who we are and who we can become starts in the classroom. Education can be a life-changing part of our story, impacting our career path, salary, and even the lives of the generations that follow.
+=====Chicago’s 250 Year History of Segregation=====
+[https://www.chicagoreporter.com/chicagos-250-year-history-of-segregation/ by Zachary Leiter 30/8/23 THE CHICAGO REPORTER]
+ That last fact is key, because in the United States, where you live determines your school choices, your social services, your job opportunities, and your safety. It determines how heavily you’re policed, how easy it is to access fresh food, and how much government investment your community receives. It determines whether you breathe clean air and have access to clean water.
+=====The Racial Segregation of American Cities Was Anything but Accidental=====
+[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-federal-government-intentionally-racially-segregated-american-cities-180963494/ by Katie Nodjimbadem 30/5/17 Smithsonian]
+ It’s not surprising to anyone who has lived in or visited a major American metropolitan region that the nation’s cities tend to be organized in their own particular racial pattern. In Chicago, it’s a north/south divide. In Austin, it’s west/east. In some cities, it’s a division based around infrastructure, as with Detroit’s 8 Mile Road. In other cities, nature—such as Washington, D.C.’s Anacostia River—is the barrier. Sometimes these divisions are man-made, sometimes natural, but none are coincidental.
+=====segregation=====
+[https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/segregation by Legal Information Institute]
+ Segregation is the action of separating people, historically on the basis of race and/or gender. Segregation implies the physical separation of people in everyday activities, in professional life, and in the exercise of civil rights.
+=====Modern Segregation=====
+[https://www.epi.org/publication/modern-segregation/ by Richard Rothstein 6/3/24 Economic Policy Institute]
+ We cannot substantially improve the performance of the poorest African American students – the “truly disadvantaged,” in William Julius Wilson’s phrase – by school reform alone. It must be addressed primarily by improving the social and economic conditions that bring too many children to school unprepared to take advantage of what schools have to offer.
+=====Segregation in Health Care=====
+[https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/issue/segregation-health-care by AMA Journal of Ethics]
+ Structural racism is deeply embedded in US health care. Legally sanctioned racial segregation in hospitals ended with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, with fiscally incentivized enforcement through Medicare payment structures implemented in 1966. Yet, practices such as sorting patients by insurance status still perpetuate de facto racial and class segregation, especially in academic health centers.
+=====Black history in the United States: Key moments from slavery to George Floyd Published=====
+[https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/52963325 by BBC 9/6/20]
+ The 46-year-old died after being arrested, and pinned to the ground, by police officers in the US city of Minneapolis.
+=====The Jim Crow Era | A Stain on America's Past=====
+[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUNiuYJxfcY by he Great Courses YouTube]
+ An African American named Homer Plessy predated Rosa Parks' famous refusal to comply with racist transportation laws by more than 60 years. The Supreme Court upheld his conviction for sitting in a whites-only train car in Plessy v. Ferguson, leading to the Jim Crow era. Discover hard history and how "separate but equal" was far from equal.
+=====Segregation=====
+[https://www.britannica.com/video/Did-You-Know-Civil-Rights-Movement-1954/-203240 by Britannica]
+ NARRATOR: In 1896 the United States Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation was legal. This meant that African Americans could be segregated, or separated, from whites in public places, such as schools. The Supreme Court reversed that decision in 1954. It ruled that separate schools for blacks and whites were unequal and, therefore, against the law.
+=====Jim Crow laws=====
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws by WIKIPEDIA]
+ The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws introduced in the Southern United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that enforced racial segregation. The origin of the term "Jim Crow" is obscure, but probably refers to slave songs that refer to an African dance called "Jump Jim Crow."
+=====Segregation in Housing and Education=====
+[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK565026/ by NIH]
+ Richard Rothstein, Distinguished Fellow at the Economics Policy Institute, spoke on ways in which the past has determined race-based social inequality today in the United States. He focused his presentation on federal housing policies that have resulted in residential segregation, countering the widely held assertion that these housing patterns are “de facto” because they emerged from individual or market-based activity.
+=====Black History Milestones: Timeline=====
+[https://www.history.com/articles/black-history-milestones by HISTORY]
+ To satisfy the labor needs of the rapidly growing North American colonies, white European settlers turned in the early 17th century from indentured servants (mostly poorer Europeans) to a cheaper, more plentiful labor source: enslaved Africans. After 1619, when a Dutch ship brought 20 Africans ashore at the British colony of Jamestown, Virginia, slavery spread quickly through the American colonies.
+=====The Troubled History of American Education after the Brown Decision=====
+[https://www.oah.org/tah/february-3/the-troubled-history-of-american-education-after-the-brown-decision/ by OAH]
+ On May 17, 1954, when the Supreme Court ruled in the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision that racial segregation in the public schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment, it sparked national reactions ranging from elation to rage. As some Americans celebrated this important ruling and its impact on democracy, their early belief in Brown’s power to eliminate racial inequities in the public schools now reflects a hopeful naiveté and the beginning of a decades-long struggle to fulfill its promise.
+=====segregation=====
+[https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/segregation/ by Edward A. Hatfield 1/7/07 New Georgia ENCYCLOPEDIA]
+ Beginning in the 1890s, Georgia and other southern states passed a wide variety of Jim Crow laws that mandated racial segregation or separation in public facilities and effectively codified the region’s tradition of white supremacy.
+=====The Moment When Four Students Sat Down to Take a Stand=====
+[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/lessons-worth-learning-moment-greensboro-four-sat-down-lunch-counter-180974087/ by Christopher Wilson 16/12/21 Smithsonian]
+ Christopher Wilson is Supervisory Curator and Chair of the Division of Home and Community Life at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History. He studies the Black Freedom Struggle and has created several major program series at the Smithsonian including the award-winning educational theater program History Alive!, the National Youth Summit, and the History Film Forum.
+=====The 1619 Project=====
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_1619_Project by WIKIPEDIA]
+ The 1619 Project is a long-form journalistic revisionist historiographical work that takes a critical view of traditionally revered figures and events in American history, including the Patriots in the American Revolution, the Founding Fathers, along with Abraham Lincoln and the Union during the Civil War.[1][2][3][4] It was developed by Nikole Hannah-Jones, writers from The New York Times, and The New York Times Magazine.
+=====Sundown town=====
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundown_town by WIKIPEDIA]
+ Sundown towns, also known as sunset towns, gray towns, or sundowner towns, were all-White municipalities or neighborhoods in the United States that practiced a form of racial segregation by excluding non-whites via some combination of discriminatory local laws, intimidation or violence. They were most prevalent before the 1950s. The term came into use because of signs that directed "colored people" to leave town by sundown.[1]
+=====Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism=====
+[https://www.zinnedproject.org/materials/sundown-towns/ by ZINN EDUCATION PROJECT]
+ “Don’t let the sun go down on you in this town.” We equate these words with the Jim Crow South but, in a sweeping analysis of American residential patterns, award-winning and bestselling author James W. Loewen demonstrates that strict racial exclusion was the norm in towns and villages across the United States, from sea to shining sea, for much of the twentieth century.
+=====Sundown Towns=====
+[https://justice.tougaloo.edu/sundown-towns/ by HISTORY & SOCIAL JUSTICE]
+ From Maine to California, thousands of communities kept out African Americans (or sometimes Chinese Americans, Jewish Americans, etc.) by force, law, or custom. These communities are sometimes called “sundown towns” because some of them posted signs at their city limits reading, typically, “Nigger, Don’t Let The Sun Go Down On You In.
+=====sundown town=====
+[https://www.britannica.com/place/sundown-town by Will Gosner  10/10/25 Britannica]
+ sundown town, in U.S. history, a town that excluded nonwhite people—most frequently African Americans—from remaining in town after sunset. More generally, sundown town is used to describe a place where the resident population was through deliberate action made to be overwhelmingly composed of white people.
+=====Sundown Towns=====
+[https://blackpast.org/african-american-history/sundown-towns/ by Ross Coen 24/8/20 BLACKPAST]
+ Sundown Towns are all-white communities, neighborhoods, or counties that exclude Blacks and other minorities through the use of discriminatory laws, harassment, and threats or use of violence. The name derives from the posted and verbal warnings issued to Blacks that although they might be allowed to work or travel in a community during the daytime, they must leave by sundown.
+=====Structural racism through Sundown towns and its relationship to COVID-19 local risk and racial and ethnic diversity=====
+[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335523001511 by Yulin Hswen ScienceDirect]
+ “Sundown towns” across the US prevented racial and ethnic minorities from living and working within their borders as they forced minorities to leave these towns after sunset. The objective of this study was to explore the relationship between sundown town status, COVID-19 local risk index and racial and ethnic diversity. A multi-level hierarchical model was used to examine the effect of historical segregation through sundown towns status on present day COVID-19 local risk index and city-level diversity.
+=====Historical Shadows: The Links between Sundown Towns and Contemporary Black–White Inequality=====
+[https://www.asanet.org/wp-content/uploads/attach/journals/jul19srefeature.pdf by Heather A. O’Connell1]
+ I contribute to our understanding of black–white inequality in the United States by assessing the legacy of
+“sundown towns.” Sundown towns are places that restricted who could live there based on ideas about
+race. The often-violent tactics employed to create and maintain all-white spaces reshaped dramatically
+the demographic and social landscape of the non-South. I extend previous research on sundown towns
+by examining their association with contemporary black–white economic inequality. In addition, I advance
+a new theoretical perspective to explain how the history associated with sundown towns contributes to
+contemporary inequality, namely large-scale segregation. To assess the contemporary impact of sundown
+history
+=====Defining Sundown Towns=====
+[https://academyhealth.org/blog/2024-08/legacy-sundown-towns-persistent-force-structural-inequities-health by Leia Belt, M.A., Ph.D. 29/8/24 Academy Health]
+ The legacy of sundown towns—any organized jurisdictions that employed violence to enforce exclusionary and segregation policies against Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC)—is not merely a concealed relic of a racist past but a persistent force perpetuating structural inequities that contribute to ongoing health disparities. Because they are often seen as shameful and concealed from American history, sundown towns—most prevalent in the Midwest and the West—are frequently excluded from discussions of places with a legacy of structural violence and segregation. Incorporating measures of sundown town histories into health services research (HSR) will enable research, policy and interventions to identify the enduring upstream root causes of health inequities, even in rural and data restricted areas.
+=====Sundown Towns and Racial Exclusion: The Southern White Diaspora and the "Great Retreat"=====
+[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/pandp.20221104 by AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION]
+ This paper studies the rise of sundown towns—places where Blacks and other minorities were excluded after dark—outside the South after 1890. We provide a new dataset on the timing of sundown town establishment using full count census records. Using a shift-share instrumental variables approach, we show that the presence of Southern Whites is causally related to the appearance of sundown towns, with lynchings and the establishment of KKK chapters as plausible mechanisms for racial exclusion.
+=====A national data set of historical US sundown towns for quantitative analysis=====
+[https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-024-04330-9 by David Rigby 8/1/25 scientific reports]
+ We present a new national data set of historical sundown towns in the United States linked to contemporary spatial information – i.e., the Historical Sundown Towns Linked to US Census Geographies database. Sundown towns are places that once enacted legal or conventional practices meant to restrict the movement or residency of Black people and other people of color within their borders.
+=====List of sundown towns in the United States=====
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sundown_towns_in_the_United_States by WIKIPEDIA]
+ A sundown town is a municipality or neighborhood within the United States that practices or once practiced a form of racial segregation characterized by intimidation, hostility, or violence among White people directed toward non-Whites, especially against African Americans. The term "sundown town" derives from the practice of White towns then erecting signage alerting non-Whites to vacate the area before sundown.
+=====Sundown Towns=====
+[https://www.prrac.org/newsletters/novdec2005.pdf by PRRAC]
+ Between 1890 and 1968, thousands
+of towns across the United States drove
+out their black populations or took steps
+to forbid African Americans from living in them. Thus were created “sundown towns,” so named because many
+marked their city limits with signs typically reading, “Nigger, Don’t Let The
+Sun Go Down On You In
+=====Sundown Towns Are Still A Problem For Black Drivers=====
+[https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/adeonibada/sundown-towns-racism-black-drivers-tiktok by Ade Onibada 22/7/21 BuzzFeedNews]
+ When 30-year-old hiker Marco Williams journeyed from his home in Prince George’s County, Maryland, to visit Devil’s Bathtub in deep Virginia in June of last year, the outdoor enthusiast never imagined that a stop for gas would present him with a warning that potentially saved his life.
+=====Historical Database of Sundown Towns=====
+[https://landtrustalliance.org/resources/learn/explore/historical-database-of-sundown-towns by James W. Lowewen 2/8/24 Land Trust Alliance]
+ The world’s only registry of sundown towns, entire communities that for decades was all-white on purpose. The site contains images, tips for teaching, and strategies for transcending its past and building good race relations.
+=====AP Road Trip: Racial tensions in America’s ‘sundown towns’=====
+[https://apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-race-and-ethnicity-violence-db28a9aaa3b800d91b65dc11a6b12c4c by TIM SULLIVAN and NOREEN NASIR 13/10/20 AP]
+ VIENNA, Ill. (AP) — Ask around this time-battered Midwestern town, with its empty storefronts, dusty antique shops and businesses that have migrated toward the interstate, and nearly everyone will tell you that Black and white residents get along really well.
+=====Sundown towns - Washington State=====
+[https://depts.washington.edu/covenants/sundown_towns.shtml by Civil Rights and Labor History Consortium / University of Washington]
+ Black people were not allowed to live in many towns and suburbs in Washington state during the era before the National Fair Housing Act (1968) and some towns operated with unofficial sundown rules. African Americans might work in the community but were expected to leave in the evening. Black men would be harrassed after dark, either by law enforcement or by white residents, typically young men in cars. Kennewick was the most notorious sundown town in Washington.
+=====The Importance of Sundown Towns=====
+[https://sundown.tougaloo.edu/content/sundown-introduction.pdf]
+ ANNA IS A TOWN of about 7,000 people, including adjoining Jonesboro.
+The twin towns lie about 35 miles north of Cairo, in southern Illinois. In
+, in the aftermath of a horrific nearby “spectacle lynching,” Anna and
+Jonesboro expelled their African Americans. Both cities have been all-white
+ever since.1 Nearly a century later, “Anna” is still considered by its residents
+and by citizens of nearby towns to mean “Ain’t No Niggers Allowed,” the
+acronym the convenience store clerk confirmed in 2001.
+=====Sundown Towns: 'Hiding' Racism Right in the Open=====
+[https://history.howstuffworks.com/american-history/sundown-towns.htm by John Donovan howstuffworks]
+ At a certain time in American history, if you happened to be of a certain racial heritage — that is to say, not white — it was probably best not to hang around after dark in certain cities and certain places. It was possibly dangerous. Sometimes deadly.
+=====Racial Exclusion in Oregon=====
+[https://oregonremembrance.org/sunrise-project/the-history/ by History]
+ When Oregon became a state in 1859, it entered into the Union with Black exclusionary laws, essentially making it a “whites only state.” In 1890, 17 of Oregon’s 32 counties had 0-10 African Americans living in them.
+=====What is a Sundown Town? A Dark History of Exclusion=====
+[https://greenbookglobal.com/travel-the-world/what-is-a-sundown-town/ by GREEN BOOK]
+ Few Americans know the term “sundown town,” yet the phenomenon is ubiquitous in our country’s history. So what is a sundown town? It is any municipality that uses intimidation to deliberately exclude non-white people from its borders after sunset.
+=====It’s Time for Sundown Towns to Become a More Visible Part of Illinois History. But How?=====
+[https://www.propublica.org/article/sundown-towns-illinois-history by Logan Jaffe 21/2/20 PROPUBLICA]
+ I was in Springfield this week to talk about my reporting in Anna, Illinois, and sundown towns like Anna. My talk was held at the Springfield public library — which, I must point out, is officially named Lincoln Library, The Public Library of Springfield, Illinois. It was hosted by the Sangamon County Historical Society in partnership with the Springfield and Central Illinois African American History Museum, and, between those two organizations, the room was packed!
+=====Sundown towns : a hidden dimension of American racism / James W. Loewen.=====
+[https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/215868?ln=en by UC Berkeley Law Library Catalog]
+ Loewen (emeritus, sociology, U. of Vermont) exposes the history and persistence of "sundown towns," so-named for the signs often found at their corporate limits warning African Americans and other minorities not to be found in the town after dusk. He historically situates the rise of the sundown town movement in the years following the Civil War; describes the mechanisms of violence, threats, law, and policy that were used to force minorities out of Northern and Western towns into the big cities; and charts the continued existence of such communities.

Segregation in the US: Difference between revisions

Kirk (talk | contribs)

Navigation menu

Search