Spanish Imperialism: Difference between revisions

(26 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)

Line 106:

[https://www.nps.gov/casa/learn/historyculture/spanish-colonial-culture.htm by Castillo de San Marcos]

There was little contact between the people of the Americas and the people of Europe before the 1400s; but, after more and more European explorers ventured out to the Americas, a mass migration began. However, this land was already populated with many different indigenous tribes who had been living on this land for centuries. When the native tribes of the Americas and the explorers and settlers of Europe came into contact with one another, a cataclysmic exchange between the Americas and Europe began.

=====Indigenous America=====

[https://www.americanyawp.com/text/01-the-new-world/ by THE AMERICAN YAWP]

Europeans called the Americas “the New World.” But for the millions of Native Americans they encountered, it was anything but. Humans have lived in the Americas for over ten thousand years. Dynamic and diverse, they spoke hundreds of languages and created thousands of distinct cultures. Native Americans built settled communities and followed seasonal migration patterns, maintained peace through alliances and warred with their neighbors, and developed self-sufficient economies and maintained vast trade networks. They cultivated distinct art forms and spiritual values.

=====The Archaeological Study of Spanish Colonialism in the Americas=====

[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10814-009-9036-8 by Mary Van Buren 31/12/09 SPRINGER NATURE Link]

Spanish colonial archaeology has undergone a fundamental shift since the Columbian Quincentenary due to the adoption of a bottom-up understanding of colonialism that emphasizes the analysis of local phenomena in a global context and the active ways in which people negotiated the processes set in motion by the conquest. This review examines five key research foci: culture change and identity, missionization, bioarchaeology, economics, and investigations of the colonial core.

=====U.S. History Primary Source Timeline=====

[https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/colonial-settlement-1600-1763/overview/ by LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 1600-1763]

When the London Company sent out its first expedition to begin colonizing Virginia on December 20, 1606, it was by no means the first European attempt to exploit North America. In 1564, for example, French Protestants (Huguenots) built a colony near what is now Jacksonville, Florida. This intrusion did not go unnoticed by the Spanish, who had previously claimed the region. The next year, the Spanish established a military post at St. Augustine; Spanish troops soon wiped out the French interlopers residing but 40 miles away.

=====Prevailing facets of Spanish colonialism: the roots of exploitation and inequality in Latin America=====

[https://scholar.utc.edu/honors-theses/282/ by UTC Scholar]

Four main facets characterized Spanish colonialism in Latin America and contributed to the persistence of inequality and exploitation in colonial institutions – conversion, easy money, centralism, and political violence. The facets of conversion, easy money, centralism, and political violence are not institutions in themselves, but rather practices and logics of Spanish colonialism whose presence can be seen in social, political, and economic institutions and traced throughout history despite changes and developments in institutions.

=====What if the Spanish colonized North America like Britain did?=====

[https://www.alternatehistory.com/forum/threads/what-if-the-spanish-colonized-north-america-like-britain-did.421809/ by Thread starterStarlight Glimme 14/7/17 alternatehistory.com]

What if the Spanish colonized North America like Britain did, in the area of the 13 colonies. Would there be a British Mexico?

=====AD 1493: The Pope asserts rights to colonize, convert, and enslave=====

[https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/171.html by NATIVE VOICES]

Pope Alexander VI issues a papal bull or decree, “Inter Caetera," in which he authorizes Spain and Portugal to colonize the Americas and its Native peoples as subjects. The decree asserts the rights of Spain and Portugal to colonize, convert, and enslave. It also justifies the enslavement of Africans.

=====6 - The Spanish Conquest and settlement of America=====

[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-latin-america/spanish-conquest-and-settlement-of-america/9F668638EDCBCC2D84C22777A200DDDB by CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY]

‘Without settlement there is no good conquest, and if the land is not conquered, the people will not be converted. Therefore the maxim of the conqueror must be to settle.’ The words are those of one of the first historians of the Indies, Francisco Lopez de Gomara. The philosophy behind them is that of his patron, the greatest of the conquistadores, Hernán Cortés. It was this philosophy which came to inform Spain's overseas enterprise of the sixteenth century and did much to make Spanish America what it eventually became.

=====The Church in Colonial Latin America=====

[https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0180.xml by John F. Schwaller 31/3/16 Oxford Bibliographic]

The Catholic Church was undoubtedly the single most important institution in colonial Latin America. Everyone who lived in the region was nominally a member of the Church. The Church controlled all aspects of life from birth, through marriage, until death.

=====The Spanish fringe=====

[https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America/The-Spanish-fringe by James Lockhart 10/10/25 Britannica]

From the notion of “centre” as used above it follows that the remaining area of Spanish occupation was, from the Spanish point of view at least, peripheral. Most of the Hispanic territories in the Indies were occupied by groups coming precisely from the central areas. Conquering groups had always consisted largely of people of lesser position in the base area, and, as it grew clearer that the central areas were unequaled in their assets, the marginality of the personnel going elsewhere became even more pronounced.

=====Libraries=====

[https://libguides.slcc.edu/world_history/spanishcolonialamerica by Jamie Dwyer Salt Lake Community College]

Bexar Archives

Approximately 5,000 documents surrounding the Spanish colonial province of Texas. Topics include military and diplomatic correspondences as well as social life in the province.

=====Spanish Colonization Exploration=====

[https://www.nps.gov/whsa/learn/historyculture/spanish-colonization-exploration.htm by White Sands]

White Sands National Park will be partially open starting Saturday October 11 through Friday October 17 from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm. The visitor center and Western National Parks store will be open from 9:00 am – 5:00 pm each day. Dunes Drive will only be accessible to Dune Life Nature Trail at mile marker 2.5. The Playa Trail and Dune Life Nature Trail will be accessible. The Backcountry Camping Loop, Interdune Boardwalk, and Alkali Flat trails will remain closed. No sledding allowed on Dune Life Nature Trail.

=====Latin American Collections (Archival)=====

[https://libguides.unm.edu/Special_LatinAmerican_Collections/Colonial_Spanish_American_Manuscripts by UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES]

The collection contains photocopies of articles, publications, and sections of publications, as well as bibliographical notes, handwritten notes, correspondence, and microfilm relating to Perry’s research for his dissertation on art patronage in colonial Mexico. Much of the material focuses on Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza and the Cathedral at Puebla, Mexico.

=====Spanish Colonialism’s Environmental Legacy, Part One: Origins=====

[https://news.ncsu.edu/2011/09/cost-of-silver-one/ by Matt Shipman 27/9/11 NC STATE UNIVERSITY]

The mining cities of Huancavelica, Peru, and Potosi, Bolivia, once the pride of the Spanish empire, are now among the most mercury-contaminated urban areas in the world. We are only now beginning to understand the impact that the quicksilver-laced soils of these cities has on their populations today. But to truly grasp the problem, you need to understand how they got this way.

=====Spanish conquest of the Maya=====

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya by WIKIPEDIA]

The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a protracted conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas, in which the Spanish conquistadores and their allies gradually incorporated the territory of the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Maya occupied the Maya Region, an area that is now part of the modern countries of Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador; the conquest began in the early 16th century and is generally considered to have ended in 1697.

=====Genocide of indigenous peoples=====

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples by WIKIPEDIA]

According to certain genocide experts, including Raphael Lemkin – the individual who coined the term genocide – colonialism is intimately connected with genocide.[7][8] Lemkin saw genocide via colonization as a two-stage process: (1) the destruction of the indigenous group's way of life, followed by (2) the settlers' imposition of their way of life on the indigenous group.

=====24 - Genocidal Massacres in the Spanish Conquest of the Americas=====

[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-world-history-of-genocide/genocidal-massacres-in-the-spanish-conquest-of-the-americas/50CCEA117148D40E9D3101D513DA224D by Harald E. Braun 23/6/23 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS]

This chapter examines and compares three genocidal events in the early modern Caribbean and Mesoamerica: the massacres of Xaragua (Hispaniola, 1503), Cholula (Mexico, 1519), and Toxcatl (Mexico, 1520; also known as the Massacre of Templo Mayor). Each of the three mass killings marked a political and military turning point in the history of Spanish military expansion in the Americas.

=====The Myth of New World Genocide=====

[https://historyreclaimed.co.uk/the-myth-of-new-world-genocide/ by Jeff Fynn-Paul 7/3/23 HISTORY RECLAIMED]

Hello and welcome everyone. In my talk today, I am going to first lay out why it is that the term genocide was not used by serious historians to describe European colonization in the New World until very recently.

=====The world’s greatest genocide?=====

[https://www.timetravelturtle.com/peru/spanish-genocide/ by Michael Turtle 31/7/25 TIME TRAVEL TURTLE]

In the country’s capital, Lima, I find myself confronting the thoughts that had been swirling aimlessly in my head. For it was here that much of this death originated, in some form or the other.

=====Genocidal Massacres in the Spanish Conquest of the Americas <i>Xaragua, Cholula and Toxcatl, 1503-1519</i>=====

[https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3144836/ by UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL]

This chapter examines and compares three genocidal events in the early modern Caribbean and Mesoamerica: the massacres of Xaragua (Hispaniola, 1503), Cholula (Mexico, 1519), and Toxcatl (Mexico, 1520; also known as the Massacre of Templo Mayor). Each of the three mass killings marked a political and military turning point in the history of Spanish military expansion in the Americas.

=====Genocide and American Indian History=====

[https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-3?print by Jeffrey Ostler 2/3/15 Genocide and American Indian History]

The issue of genocide and American Indian history has been contentious. Many writers see the massive depopulation of the indigenous population of the Americas after 1492 as a clear-cut case of the genocide. Other writers, however, contend that European and U.S. actions toward Indians were deplorable but were rarely if ever genocidal. To a significant extent, disagreements about the pervasiveness of genocide in the history of the post-Columbian Western Hemisphere, in general, and U.S. history, in particular, pivot on definitions of genocide.

=====Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas=====

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas by WIKIPEDIA]

Population figures for the Indigenous peoples of the Americas before European colonization have been difficult to establish. Estimates have varied widely from as low as 8 million to as many as 100 million, though by the end of the 20th Century, many scholars gravitated toward an estimate of around 50 million people.

=====California Indian History=====

[https://nahc.ca.gov/native-americans/california-indian-history/ by NATIVE AMERICAN HERITAGE COMMISSION]

One manner in which we can seek to understand aboriginal California Indian cultures is to look at the tribes inhabiting similar climatic and ecological zones. What emerges from this approach is a remarkable similarity in material aspects of the many different tribes inhabiting those territories. Generally speaking technologies and materials used to manufacture tools, homes and storage containers show great similarity. Hunting, trapping and fishing technologies also are shared across tribal lines terrain, available water plants and animals affected the density of populations, settlement patterns as each tribe adjusted to its environment.

=====Bartolomé de las Casas and 500 Years of Racial Injustice=====

[https://origins.osu.edu/milestones/july-2015-bartolom-de-las-casas-and-500-years-racial-injustice by Dani Anthony ORIGINS]

This year marks the 500-year anniversary of the pricking of one man's conscience. Bartolomé de las Casas, sickened by the exploitation and physical degradation of the indigenous peoples in the Spanish colonies of the Caribbean, gave up his extensive land holdings and slaves and traveled to his homeland in Spain in 1515 to petition the Spanish Crown to stop the abuses that European colonists were inflicting upon the natives of the New World.

=====European colonisation of the Americas killed 10% of world population and caused global cooling=====

[https://theconversation.com/european-colonisation-of-the-americas-killed-10-of-world-population-and-caused-global-cooling-110549 by Alexander Koch 31/1/19 THE CONVERSATION]

While Europe was in the early days of the Renaissance, there were empires in the Americas sustaining more than 60m people. But the first European contact in 1492 brought diseases to the Americas which devastated the native population and the resultant collapse of farming in the Americas was so significant that it may have even cooled the global climate.

=====The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs=====

[https://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html by PBS]

Much of the credit for European military success in the New World can be handed to the superiority of their weapons, their literary heritage, even the fact they had unique load-bearing mammals, like horses. These factors combined, gave the conquistadors a massive advantage over the sophisticated civilisations of the Aztec and Inca empires.

=====The Holocaust We Will Not See=====

[https://www.monbiot.com/2010/01/11/the-holocaust-we-will-not-see/ by monbiot.com 11/1/10]

Avatar, James Cameron’s blockbusting 3-D film, is both profoundly silly and profound. It’s profound because, like most films about aliens, it is a metaphor for contact between different human cultures. But in this case the metaphor is conscious and precise: this is the story of European engagement with the native peoples of the Americas. It’s profoundly silly because engineering a happy ending demands a plot so stupid and predictable that it rips the heart out of the film. The fate of the native Americans is much closer to the story told in another new film, The Road, in which a remnant population flees in terror as it is hunted to extinction.

=====Spanish Conquest & Aztecs: The impact and legacy of colonisation=====

[https://library.norwood.vic.edu.au/aztecs/legacyofcolonisation by Picryl NORWOOD SECONDARY COLLEGE]

The arrival of the Spanish in 1519 signalled the beginning of the end of the Aztec Empire. The final defeat of the Aztecs in 1521 had a number of consequences not only for the Aztec people, but for the whole Mesoamerican region. Read through these resources to find out more about the impact and legacy of colonisation.

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@@ Line 106: / Line 106: @@
 [https://www.nps.gov/casa/learn/historyculture/spanish-colonial-culture.htm by Castillo de San Marcos]
   There was little contact between the people of the Americas and the people of Europe before the 1400s; but, after more and more European explorers ventured out to the Americas, a mass migration began. However, this land was already populated with many different indigenous tribes who had been living on this land for centuries. When the native tribes of the Americas and the explorers and settlers of Europe came into contact with one another, a cataclysmic exchange between the Americas and Europe began.
+=====Indigenous America=====
+[https://www.americanyawp.com/text/01-the-new-world/ by THE AMERICAN YAWP]
+ Europeans called the Americas “the New World.” But for the millions of Native Americans they encountered, it was anything but. Humans have lived in the Americas for over ten thousand years. Dynamic and diverse, they spoke hundreds of languages and created thousands of distinct cultures. Native Americans built settled communities and followed seasonal migration patterns, maintained peace through alliances and warred with their neighbors, and developed self-sufficient economies and maintained vast trade networks. They cultivated distinct art forms and spiritual values.
+=====The Archaeological Study of Spanish Colonialism in the Americas=====
+[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10814-009-9036-8 by Mary Van Buren 31/12/09 SPRINGER NATURE Link]
+ Spanish colonial archaeology has undergone a fundamental shift since the Columbian Quincentenary due to the adoption of a bottom-up understanding of colonialism that emphasizes the analysis of local phenomena in a global context and the active ways in which people negotiated the processes set in motion by the conquest. This review examines five key research foci: culture change and identity, missionization, bioarchaeology, economics, and investigations of the colonial core.
+=====U.S. History Primary Source Timeline=====
+[https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/colonial-settlement-1600-1763/overview/ by LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 1600-1763]
+ When the London Company sent out its first expedition to begin colonizing Virginia on December 20, 1606, it was by no means the first European attempt to exploit North America. In 1564, for example, French Protestants (Huguenots) built a colony near what is now Jacksonville, Florida. This intrusion did not go unnoticed by the Spanish, who had previously claimed the region. The next year, the Spanish established a military post at St. Augustine; Spanish troops soon wiped out the French interlopers residing but 40 miles away.
+=====Prevailing facets of Spanish colonialism: the roots of exploitation and inequality in Latin America=====
+[https://scholar.utc.edu/honors-theses/282/ by UTC Scholar]
+ Four main facets characterized Spanish colonialism in Latin America and contributed to the persistence of inequality and exploitation in colonial institutions – conversion, easy money, centralism, and political violence. The facets of conversion, easy money, centralism, and political violence are not institutions in themselves, but rather practices and logics of Spanish colonialism whose presence can be seen in social, political, and economic institutions and traced throughout history despite changes and developments in institutions.
+=====What if the Spanish colonized North America like Britain did?=====
+[https://www.alternatehistory.com/forum/threads/what-if-the-spanish-colonized-north-america-like-britain-did.421809/ by Thread starterStarlight Glimme 14/7/17 alternatehistory.com]
+ What if the Spanish colonized North America like Britain did, in the area of the 13 colonies. Would there be a British Mexico?
+=====AD 1493: The Pope asserts rights to colonize, convert, and enslave=====
+[https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/171.html by NATIVE VOICES]
+ Pope Alexander VI issues a papal bull or decree, “Inter Caetera," in which he authorizes Spain and Portugal to colonize the Americas and its Native peoples as subjects. The decree asserts the rights of Spain and Portugal to colonize, convert, and enslave. It also justifies the enslavement of Africans.
+=====6 - The Spanish Conquest and settlement of America=====
+[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-latin-america/spanish-conquest-and-settlement-of-america/9F668638EDCBCC2D84C22777A200DDDB by CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY]
+ ‘Without settlement there is no good conquest, and if the land is not conquered, the people will not be converted. Therefore the maxim of the conqueror must be to settle.’ The words are those of one of the first historians of the Indies, Francisco Lopez de Gomara. The philosophy behind them is that of his patron, the greatest of the conquistadores, Hernán Cortés. It was this philosophy which came to inform Spain's overseas enterprise of the sixteenth century and did much to make Spanish America what it eventually became.
+=====The Church in Colonial Latin America=====
+[https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0180.xml by John F. Schwaller 31/3/16 Oxford Bibliographic]
+ The Catholic Church was undoubtedly the single most important institution in colonial Latin America. Everyone who lived in the region was nominally a member of the Church. The Church controlled all aspects of life from birth, through marriage, until death.
+=====The Spanish fringe=====
+[https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America/The-Spanish-fringe by James Lockhart 10/10/25 Britannica]
+ From the notion of “centre” as used above it follows that the remaining area of Spanish occupation was, from the Spanish point of view at least, peripheral. Most of the Hispanic territories in the Indies were occupied by groups coming precisely from the central areas. Conquering groups had always consisted largely of people of lesser position in the base area, and, as it grew clearer that the central areas were unequaled in their assets, the marginality of the personnel going elsewhere became even more pronounced.
+=====Libraries=====
+[https://libguides.slcc.edu/world_history/spanishcolonialamerica by Jamie Dwyer Salt Lake Community College]
+ Bexar Archives
+Approximately 5,000 documents surrounding the Spanish colonial province of Texas. Topics include military and diplomatic correspondences as well as social life in the province.
+=====Spanish Colonization Exploration=====
+[https://www.nps.gov/whsa/learn/historyculture/spanish-colonization-exploration.htm by White Sands]
+ White Sands National Park will be partially open starting Saturday October 11 through Friday October 17 from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm. The visitor center and Western National Parks store will be open from 9:00 am – 5:00 pm each day. Dunes Drive will only be accessible to Dune Life Nature Trail at mile marker 2.5. The Playa Trail and Dune Life Nature Trail will be accessible. The Backcountry Camping Loop, Interdune Boardwalk, and Alkali Flat trails will remain closed. No sledding allowed on Dune Life Nature Trail.
+=====Latin American Collections (Archival)=====
+[https://libguides.unm.edu/Special_LatinAmerican_Collections/Colonial_Spanish_American_Manuscripts by UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES]
+ The collection contains photocopies of articles, publications, and sections of publications, as well as bibliographical notes, handwritten notes, correspondence, and microfilm relating to Perry’s research for his dissertation on art patronage in colonial Mexico. Much of the material focuses on Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza and the Cathedral at Puebla, Mexico.
+=====Spanish Colonialism’s Environmental Legacy, Part One: Origins=====
+[https://news.ncsu.edu/2011/09/cost-of-silver-one/ by Matt Shipman 27/9/11 NC STATE UNIVERSITY]
+ The mining cities of Huancavelica, Peru, and Potosi, Bolivia, once the pride of the Spanish empire, are now among the most mercury-contaminated urban areas in the world. We are only now beginning to understand the impact that the quicksilver-laced soils of these cities has on their populations today. But to truly grasp the problem, you need to understand how they got this way.
+=====Spanish conquest of the Maya=====
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya by WIKIPEDIA]
+ The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a protracted conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas, in which the Spanish conquistadores and their allies gradually incorporated the territory of the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Maya occupied the Maya Region, an area that is now part of the modern countries of Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador; the conquest began in the early 16th century and is generally considered to have ended in 1697.
+=====Genocide of indigenous peoples=====
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples by WIKIPEDIA]
+ According to certain genocide experts, including Raphael Lemkin – the individual who coined the term genocide – colonialism is intimately connected with genocide.[7][8] Lemkin saw genocide via colonization as a two-stage process: (1) the destruction of the indigenous group's way of life, followed by (2) the settlers' imposition of their way of life on the indigenous group.
+=====24 - Genocidal Massacres in the Spanish Conquest of the Americas=====
+[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-world-history-of-genocide/genocidal-massacres-in-the-spanish-conquest-of-the-americas/50CCEA117148D40E9D3101D513DA224D by Harald E. Braun 23/6/23 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS]
+ This chapter examines and compares three genocidal events in the early modern Caribbean and Mesoamerica: the massacres of Xaragua (Hispaniola, 1503), Cholula (Mexico, 1519), and Toxcatl (Mexico, 1520; also known as the Massacre of Templo Mayor). Each of the three mass killings marked a political and military turning point in the history of Spanish military expansion in the Americas.
+=====The Myth of New World Genocide=====
+[https://historyreclaimed.co.uk/the-myth-of-new-world-genocide/ by Jeff Fynn-Paul 7/3/23 HISTORY RECLAIMED]
+ Hello and welcome everyone. In my talk today, I am going to first lay out why it is that the term genocide was not used by serious historians to describe European colonization in the New World until very recently.
+=====The world’s greatest genocide?=====
+[https://www.timetravelturtle.com/peru/spanish-genocide/ by Michael Turtle 31/7/25 TIME TRAVEL TURTLE]
+ In the country’s capital, Lima, I find myself confronting the thoughts that had been swirling aimlessly in my head. For it was here that much of this death originated, in some form or the other.
+=====Genocidal Massacres in the Spanish Conquest of the Americas <i>Xaragua, Cholula and Toxcatl, 1503-1519</i>=====
+[https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3144836/ by UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL]
+ This chapter examines and compares three genocidal events in the early modern Caribbean and Mesoamerica: the massacres of Xaragua (Hispaniola, 1503), Cholula (Mexico, 1519), and Toxcatl (Mexico, 1520; also known as the Massacre of Templo Mayor). Each of the three mass killings marked a political and military turning point in the history of Spanish military expansion in the Americas.
+=====Genocide and American Indian History=====
+[https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-3?print by Jeffrey Ostler 2/3/15 Genocide and American Indian History]
+ The issue of genocide and American Indian history has been contentious. Many writers see the massive depopulation of the indigenous population of the Americas after 1492 as a clear-cut case of the genocide. Other writers, however, contend that European and U.S. actions toward Indians were deplorable but were rarely if ever genocidal. To a significant extent, disagreements about the pervasiveness of genocide in the history of the post-Columbian Western Hemisphere, in general, and U.S. history, in particular, pivot on definitions of genocide.
+=====Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas=====
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas by WIKIPEDIA]
+ Population figures for the Indigenous peoples of the Americas before European colonization have been difficult to establish. Estimates have varied widely from as low as 8 million to as many as 100 million, though by the end of the 20th Century, many scholars gravitated toward an estimate of around 50 million people.
+=====California Indian History=====
+[https://nahc.ca.gov/native-americans/california-indian-history/ by NATIVE AMERICAN HERITAGE COMMISSION]
+ One manner in which we can seek to understand aboriginal California Indian cultures is to look at the tribes inhabiting similar climatic and ecological zones. What emerges from this approach is a remarkable similarity in material aspects of the many different tribes inhabiting those territories. Generally speaking technologies and materials used to manufacture tools, homes and storage containers show great similarity. Hunting, trapping and fishing technologies also are shared across tribal lines terrain, available water plants and animals affected the density of populations, settlement patterns as each tribe adjusted to its environment.
+=====Bartolomé de las Casas and 500 Years of Racial Injustice=====
+[https://origins.osu.edu/milestones/july-2015-bartolom-de-las-casas-and-500-years-racial-injustice by  Dani Anthony ORIGINS]
+ This year marks the 500-year anniversary of the pricking of one man's conscience. Bartolomé de las Casas, sickened by the exploitation and physical degradation of the indigenous peoples in the Spanish colonies of the Caribbean, gave up his extensive land holdings and slaves and traveled to his homeland in Spain in 1515 to petition the Spanish Crown to stop the abuses that European colonists were inflicting upon the natives of the New World.
+=====European colonisation of the Americas killed 10% of world population and caused global cooling=====
+[https://theconversation.com/european-colonisation-of-the-americas-killed-10-of-world-population-and-caused-global-cooling-110549 by Alexander Koch 31/1/19 THE CONVERSATION]
+ While Europe was in the early days of the Renaissance, there were empires in the Americas sustaining more than 60m people. But the first European contact in 1492 brought diseases to the Americas which devastated the native population and the resultant collapse of farming in the Americas was so significant that it may have even cooled the global climate.
+=====The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs=====
+[https://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html by PBS]
+ Much of the credit for European military success in the New World can be handed to the superiority of their weapons, their literary heritage, even the fact they had unique load-bearing mammals, like horses. These factors combined, gave the conquistadors a massive advantage over the sophisticated civilisations of the Aztec and Inca empires.
+=====The Holocaust We Will Not See=====
+[https://www.monbiot.com/2010/01/11/the-holocaust-we-will-not-see/ by monbiot.com 11/1/10]
+ Avatar, James Cameron’s blockbusting 3-D film, is both profoundly silly and profound. It’s profound because, like most films about aliens, it is a metaphor for contact between different human cultures. But in this case the metaphor is conscious and precise: this is the story of European engagement with the native peoples of the Americas. It’s profoundly silly because engineering a happy ending demands a plot so stupid and predictable that it rips the heart out of the film. The fate of the native Americans is much closer to the story told in another new film, The Road, in which a remnant population flees in terror as it is hunted to extinction.
+=====Spanish Conquest & Aztecs: The impact and legacy of colonisation=====
+[https://library.norwood.vic.edu.au/aztecs/legacyofcolonisation by Picryl NORWOOD SECONDARY COLLEGE]
+ The arrival of the Spanish in 1519 signalled the beginning of the end of the Aztec Empire. The final defeat of the Aztecs in 1521 had a number of consequences not only for the Aztec people, but for the whole Mesoamerican region. Read through these resources to find out more about the impact and legacy of colonisation.