History of Indigenous Treaties .

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Historic and Modern Indigenous Treaties

Overview

Indigenous treaties are agreements between Indigenous nations and colonial or national governments that define relationships involving land, sovereignty, peace, trade, governance, and rights. Across countries such as Canada, New Zealand, the United States, and Australia, treaties remain central to debates over Indigenous self-determination, land restitution, legal recognition, and government responsibility.

Treaties are not only historical documents. Many continue to carry legal, political, and moral force today. Indigenous nations often emphasize that treaties were nation-to-nation agreements based on mutual responsibility, while governments have frequently interpreted them through written colonial texts that did not always reflect Indigenous understandings, oral promises, or consent.

Canada: Historic and Modern Treaties

Canada has a long treaty history involving First Nations, Inuit, Métis peoples, and the Crown. Historic treaties include Peace and Friendship Treaties, the Robinson Treaties, the Douglas Treaties, the Numbered Treaties, and other regional agreements. These treaties shaped settlement, resource extraction, reserve creation, and Crown-Indigenous relations.

The Numbered Treaties, signed between 1871 and 1921, covered large areas of western and northern Canada. They are often described by governments as land-surrender agreements, but many Indigenous nations argue that the treaties were agreements to share land rather than permanently give it away. Continuing disputes involve annuities, hunting and fishing rights, health obligations, oral promises, and the meaning of treaty implementation.

Modern treaties, also known as comprehensive land claims agreements, address land ownership, self-government, resource rights, compensation, and governance. Examples include the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, the Nisga’a Final Agreement, the Tsawwassen First Nation Final Agreement, the Maa-nulth First Nations Final Agreement, and the Tla’amin Final Agreement.

New Zealand: Te Tiriti o Waitangi

The Treaty of Waitangi, or Te Tiriti o Waitangi, was signed in 1840 between Māori rangatira and the British Crown. It remains New Zealand’s foundational treaty and continues to shape debates over sovereignty, land, governance, and Māori rights.

A central issue is the difference between the Māori-language text and the English-language text. Māori signatories understood the agreement in terms of continuing chiefly authority, while the English text asserted broader Crown sovereignty. This difference has shaped generations of political and legal debate.

Modern institutions such as the Waitangi Tribunal investigate Crown breaches of the treaty and recommend redress. Treaty settlements address historical grievances involving land loss, confiscation, broken promises, and Crown actions that harmed Māori communities. Recent political debates over attempts to redefine treaty principles show that Te Tiriti remains a living and contested part of New Zealand public life.

United States: Native Nation Treaties

The United States signed hundreds of treaties with Native nations between the colonial period and the late nineteenth century. These treaties recognized Native nations as political communities with whom the United States negotiated over land, peace, alliance, removal, reservations, and reserved rights.

Important examples include the Treaty with the Delawares, the Treaty of Canandaigua, the Treaty of Greenville, the Treaty of New Echota, the Fort Laramie Treaties, the Medicine Lodge Treaties, the Treaty of Point Elliott, the Treaty of Medicine Creek, and the Treaty of Neah Bay.

In 1871, Congress ended formal treaty-making with Native nations, but existing treaties remained legally binding. Many treaty disputes continue today, especially over land, fishing, hunting, water, and reserved rights. The reserved rights doctrine holds that Native nations retain rights they did not explicitly give up in treaties. Court cases such as the Boldt Decision and United States v. Washington affirmed treaty-guaranteed fishing rights in the Pacific Northwest.

Treaties also remain tied to activism and political movements. The 1972 Trail of Broken Treaties protest demanded that the United States honor its treaty obligations and recognize Native sovereignty.

Australia: Treaty, Land Rights, and Native Title

Unlike Canada, New Zealand, and the United States, Australia did not establish a national treaty with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples at colonization. This absence remains central to debates over sovereignty, reconciliation, and justice.

Modern Australian treaty efforts have developed at the state and territory level. Victoria has created treaty institutions and a truth-telling process through the Yoorrook Justice Commission. Queensland and South Australia have also pursued treaty-related pathways. The Uluru Statement from the Heart called for Voice, Treaty, and Truth through a Makarrata Commission.

Australia’s treaty debates are closely connected to land rights and native title. The Mabo decision of 1992 rejected the doctrine of terra nullius and recognized native title, transforming Australian law. However, native title does not equal a treaty, and many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leaders continue to call for formal agreements recognizing sovereignty, land rights, and self-determination.

International Treaty Rights

International human rights frameworks increasingly recognize Indigenous treaty rights. The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples affirms the importance of treaties, agreements, and other constructive arrangements between Indigenous peoples and states.

United Nations studies on treaties and agreements emphasize that Indigenous treaties should be understood as part of continuing relationships, not merely as historical records. These frameworks connect treaty rights to self-determination, land, culture, governance, and the duty of states to respect Indigenous peoples as distinct political communities.

Research Tools and Educational Resources

Many institutions provide treaty texts, maps, legal guides, and educational materials. In Canada, Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, the Canadian Encyclopedia, provincial treaty offices, and treaty commissions offer access to treaty histories and documents. In the United States, the National Archives, Library of Congress, Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian, Native American Rights Fund, Oklahoma State University’s Tribal Treaties Database, and Native Governance Center provide treaty texts and teaching resources.

Other tools, such as Native-Land.ca, help users explore Indigenous territories, languages, and treaty areas. Educational projects such as Treaties Matter and Native Knowledge 360° explain treaties as living agreements that continue to shape law, land, and public responsibility.

Continuing Importance

Indigenous treaties remain central to struggles over land, sovereignty, cultural survival, and government accountability. While governments often treated treaties as tools of expansion or settlement, Indigenous nations continue to assert that treaties created enduring relationships based on mutual obligation.

The meaning of treaties depends not only on written text but also on oral promises, Indigenous law, historical context, and the spirit and intent of the agreements. Around the world, treaty rights continue to influence court cases, political movements, land claims, education, and reconciliation efforts.

Conclusion

Historic and modern Indigenous treaties are living agreements that continue to shape relationships between Indigenous peoples and states. In Canada, treaties structure Crown-Indigenous relations and modern land claims. In New Zealand, Te Tiriti o Waitangi remains central to Māori rights and national identity. In the United States, Native nation treaties continue to define reserved rights and tribal sovereignty. In Australia, the absence of a national treaty has made treaty-making a major goal of Indigenous justice movements. Internationally, treaty rights are increasingly recognized as part of Indigenous self-determination and human rights.

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About Treaties

| Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada | Government of Canada | February 17, 2026

Overview of treaty relationships in Canada, explaining historic treaties, modern treaties, treaty rights, and the continuing obligations between Indigenous peoples and the Crown.

A Brief History of Treaties in Canada

| Indigenous Corporate Training Inc. | ICT Inc. | June 9, 2025

Explains the evolution of treaty-making in Canada, from Peace and Friendship Treaties to numbered treaties and modern land claims agreements.

“We Didn’t Sign That Treaty”: In Canada, the Anishinaabe Fight for Land They Never Gave Up

| Leyland Cecco | The Guardian | August 2, 2024

Examines a contemporary Anishinaabe land rights dispute tied to the Robinson Superior Treaty and claims that some communities never consented to surrender their lands.

Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada

| Zach Parrott | The Canadian Encyclopedia | July 30, 2018

Explains the Canadian federal department responsible for treaty relationships, Indigenous-government affairs, and reconciliation initiatives.

Treaties and Agreements with Indigenous Peoples

| Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada | Government of Canada | n.d.

Government overview of treaties, agreements, negotiations, and land claims involving Indigenous peoples in Canada.

Treaty Texts

| Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada | Government of Canada | n.d.

Provides access to treaty texts between the Crown and Indigenous peoples in Canada, including historic treaty documents.

The Numbered Treaties

| René Fumoleau and Erin Hanson | The Canadian Encyclopedia | n.d.

Explains the eleven Numbered Treaties signed between 1871 and 1921 and their role in western Canadian expansion.

Treaties 1 and 2

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Describes the first Numbered Treaties, signed in Manitoba in 1871, and the disputes over promises, annuities, and land surrender.

Treaty 3

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Explains Treaty 3, signed in 1873 with Anishinaabe peoples, and its importance for lands in northwestern Ontario and Manitoba.

Treaty 4

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Covers Treaty 4, signed in 1874, and the treaty relationship affecting Cree, Saulteaux, and Assiniboine peoples.

Treaty 5

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Describes Treaty 5, signed beginning in 1875, and its role in northern Manitoba, Ontario, and Saskatchewan.

Treaty 6

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Explains Treaty 6, signed in 1876, including the famous medicine chest clause and continuing debates over health and assistance obligations.

Treaty 7

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Covers Treaty 7, signed in 1877 with Blackfoot Confederacy, Tsuut’ina, and Stoney-Nakoda nations in present-day southern Alberta.

Treaty 8

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Describes Treaty 8, signed in 1899, one of the largest treaty areas in Canada, covering parts of Alberta, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories.

Treaty 9

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Explains Treaty 9, also known as the James Bay Treaty, and the disagreement between written terms and oral promises.

Treaty 10

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Covers Treaty 10, signed in 1906 and 1907, involving Cree and Dene peoples in northern Saskatchewan and Alberta.

Treaty 11

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Describes Treaty 11, signed in 1921, affecting Dene, Gwich’in, Sahtu, and other Indigenous peoples in the Northwest Territories.

Peace and Friendship Treaties

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Explains treaties in Atlantic Canada that focused on peace, trade, and alliance rather than land surrender.

Robinson Treaties

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Describes the Robinson-Huron and Robinson-Superior Treaties of 1850 and the continuing disputes over annuities and land obligations.

Williams Treaties

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Explains the 1923 Williams Treaties in Ontario and the long struggle over hunting, fishing, and harvesting rights.

Douglas Treaties

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Covers the Vancouver Island treaties negotiated by James Douglas and the continuing debate over Indigenous land rights in British Columbia.

Huron-British Treaty of 1764

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Describes the treaty between the Huron-Wendat and the British Crown after the Seven Years’ War and its legal significance.

Royal Proclamation of 1763

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Explains the proclamation that recognized Indigenous land interests and established Crown procedures for acquiring Indigenous lands.

Treaty of Niagara

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Describes the 1764 Treaty of Niagara, where Indigenous nations and British representatives renewed alliance relationships after the Royal Proclamation.

Modern Treaties

| Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada | Government of Canada | n.d.

Explains modern treaties in Canada, also known as comprehensive land claims agreements, and how they differ from historic treaties.

Comprehensive Land Claims: Modern Treaties

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Provides an overview of modern treaty negotiations in Canada and their role in land, governance, resource, and self-government rights.

James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Explains the 1975 James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, often described as Canada’s first modern treaty.

Nunavut Land Claims Agreement

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Describes the 1993 agreement that created the foundation for Nunavut and recognized Inuit land and governance rights.

Nisga’a Final Agreement

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Explains the Nisga’a treaty, the first modern treaty in British Columbia, and its role in land ownership and self-government.

Tsawwassen First Nation Final Agreement

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Covers the modern treaty establishing Tsawwassen First Nation rights, land ownership, and self-government powers.

Maa-nulth First Nations Final Agreement

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Describes the modern treaty with five Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations on Vancouver Island.

Tla’amin Final Agreement

| The Canadian Encyclopedia | Historica Canada | n.d.

Explains the modern treaty recognizing Tla’amin Nation land, governance, and treaty rights in British Columbia.

Aboriginal and Treaty Rights

| BC Treaty Commission | British Columbia Treaty Commission | n.d.

Explains Aboriginal rights, treaty rights, extinguishment, certainty, and modern treaty negotiations in British Columbia.

The BC Treaty Commission

| BC Treaty Commission | British Columbia Treaty Commission | n.d.

Describes the institution created to facilitate modern treaty negotiations among First Nations, British Columbia, and Canada.

Treaty Rights

| Assembly of First Nations | AFN | n.d.

Explains the Assembly of First Nations’ position on treaty rights, treaty implementation, and First Nations-Crown relationships.

Treaties Recognition Week

| Government of Ontario | Ontario.ca | n.d.

Explains Ontario’s Treaties Recognition Week and provides educational context about treaties between First Nations and the Crown.

Treaties in Ontario

| Government of Ontario | Ontario.ca | n.d.

Overview of treaties in Ontario, including treaty maps, treaty relationships, and public education resources.

Ontario Treaties Map

| Government of Ontario | Ontario.ca | n.d.

Interactive map showing treaty areas and reserves in Ontario, useful for connecting treaty history to geography.

Treaty Relations Commission of Manitoba

| Treaty Relations Commission of Manitoba | TRCM | n.d.

Provides educational resources on treaty relationships in Manitoba and promotes public understanding of treaty responsibilities.

Treaty Education

| Treaty Relations Commission of Manitoba | TRCM | n.d.

Explains treaty education initiatives designed to teach the history and meaning of treaties in Manitoba.

Office of the Treaty Commissioner

| Office of the Treaty Commissioner | Saskatchewan | n.d.

Saskatchewan resource on treaty education, treaty implementation, and public understanding of First Nations-Crown agreements.

Treaty Essential Learnings

| Office of the Treaty Commissioner | Saskatchewan | n.d.

Explains key treaty concepts for education, including the spirit and intent of treaties, oral promises, and treaty responsibilities.

The Spirit and Intent of Treaty

| Office of the Treaty Commissioner | Saskatchewan | n.d.

Describes the importance of understanding treaties through both written text and oral promises made during negotiations.

Treaty 8 First Nations of Alberta

| Treaty 8 First Nations of Alberta | Treaty 8 | n.d.

Provides information on Treaty 8 First Nations, treaty rights, governance, and the continuing treaty relationship in Alberta.

Treaty 7 Management Corporation

| Treaty 7 Management Corporation | Treaty 7 | n.d.

Represents Treaty 7 First Nations and provides historical and contemporary information on treaty rights and governance.

Treaty One Nation

| Treaty One Nation | Treaty One | n.d.

Provides information on Treaty One First Nations and modern efforts to implement treaty rights and economic development.

Treaty 4 Gathering

| Treaty 4 Gathering | Treaty 4 | n.d.

Educational and cultural resource focused on Treaty 4, treaty commemoration, and treaty relationships.

The Robinson Huron Treaty Litigation Fund

| Robinson Huron Treaty Litigation Fund | Robinson Huron Treaty | n.d.

Explains the Robinson Huron annuities litigation and the long-running dispute over treaty compensation obligations.

Robinson Superior Treaty

| Anishinabek Nation | Anishinabek Nation | n.d.

Provides background on the Robinson Superior Treaty and contemporary Anishinabek treaty rights advocacy.

Specific Claims

| Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada | Government of Canada | n.d.

Explains Canada’s process for resolving claims about past treaty breaches, reserve lands, and Crown obligations.

Specific Claims Tribunal

| Specific Claims Tribunal Canada | Government of Canada | n.d.

Provides information on the tribunal that adjudicates First Nations claims involving treaty breaches and Crown obligations.

New Zealand Parliament Rejects Controversial Indigenous Law

| Reuters | Reuters | April 10, 2025

Reports on Parliament’s rejection of a bill that would have redefined the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi, showing the continuing political importance of Indigenous treaty rights.

New Zealand Lawmakers Reject Proposed Law to Redefine the Country’s Founding Treaty of Waitangi

| Associated Press | AP News | April 10, 2025

Covers the defeat of a proposed law to reinterpret the Treaty of Waitangi, including public opposition and debate over Māori rights.

Tens of Thousands Crowd New Zealand’s Parliament Grounds in Support of Māori Rights

| Associated Press | AP News | November 19, 2024

Covers mass demonstrations defending Māori rights and the Treaty of Waitangi against proposed political reinterpretation.

Treaty of Waitangi

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Summarizes the Treaty of Waitangi, signed in 1840 between Māori rangatira and the British Crown, and explains why it remains central to New Zealand history.

Read the Treaty

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Provides the English text of the Treaty of Waitangi, useful for comparing wording, interpretation, and historical disputes over sovereignty.

Treaty of Waitangi: Māori Text

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Provides the Māori-language text of Te Tiriti o Waitangi, essential for understanding differences between the Māori and English versions.

Making the Treaty of Waitangi

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Describes the drafting, translation, debate, and signing process that produced the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840.

Signing the Treaty

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Explains how the Treaty of Waitangi was signed at Waitangi and then taken around the country for additional Māori signatures.

Treaty of Waitangi in Brief

| Claudia Orange | Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand | n.d.

Encyclopedic overview of the Treaty of Waitangi, its background, disputed meanings, and long-term role in New Zealand law and politics.

The Treaty in Practice

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Explains how the Treaty of Waitangi was applied, ignored, debated, and revived across New Zealand’s colonial and modern history.

The Treaty Debated

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Covers public and political debates over the meaning of the Treaty of Waitangi and the Crown’s responsibilities to Māori.

The Treaty House

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Explains the historical importance of the Treaty House at Waitangi as a site connected to the 1840 treaty signing.

Waitangi Day

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Describes the history of Waitangi Day and how commemorations of the treaty have reflected changing Māori-Crown relations.

Waitangi Tribunal

| Waitangi Tribunal | New Zealand Ministry of Justice | n.d.

Explains the tribunal established to investigate Crown breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi and recommend redress.

The Treaty of Waitangi Claims Process

| Waitangi Tribunal | New Zealand Ministry of Justice | n.d.

Describes how Māori claims about breaches of Te Tiriti are filed, heard, researched, and reported through the Waitangi Tribunal.

Treaty Settlements

| New Zealand Government | Govt.nz | n.d.

Explains New Zealand’s treaty settlement process and how historical grievances between Māori and the Crown are addressed.

Office for Māori Crown Relations: Te Arawhiti

| Te Arawhiti | New Zealand Government | n.d.

Provides information on the government office responsible for Māori-Crown relations, treaty settlements, and contemporary treaty partnership work.

Treaty of Waitangi Settlements

| Richard S. Hill | Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand | n.d.

Explains the history of Treaty of Waitangi settlements, including land loss, claims, negotiations, apologies, and compensation.

Māori Land Loss

| Richard Boast | Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand | n.d.

Describes the processes through which Māori lost land after the Treaty of Waitangi, including purchase, confiscation, and legal pressure.

The Declaration of Independence

| Ministry for Culture and Heritage | New Zealand History | n.d.

Explains He Whakaputanga, the 1835 Declaration of Independence, an important precursor to Te Tiriti o Waitangi.

He Whakaputanga: Declaration of Independence

| Te Ara | Encyclopedia of New Zealand | n.d.

Provides historical background on He Whakaputanga and its relationship to Māori sovereignty before the Treaty of Waitangi.

Waitangi and Indigenous Treaties

| Waitangi Tribunal | New Zealand Ministry of Justice | n.d.

Provides an official explanation of the Treaty of Waitangi, including its articles, principles, and continuing role in Māori-Crown relations.

The Treaty of Waitangi: Questions and Answers

| Waitangi Tribunal | New Zealand Ministry of Justice | n.d.

Explains key interpretive questions about Te Tiriti, including differences between the Māori and English texts and the meaning of treaty principles.

The Trail of Broken Treaties, 1972

| National Park Service | U.S. Department of the Interior | June 26, 2024

Describes the 1972 Trail of Broken Treaties protest, in which Native activists traveled to Washington, D.C. to demand that the United States honor treaty obligations.

American Indian Treaties

| National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives | June 22, 2022

Introduces the National Archives collection of original treaties between the United States and American Indian nations, along with related council records and treaty documentation.

Viewing American Indian Treaties

| National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives | June 22, 2022

Explains how to view digitized American Indian treaties held by the National Archives, including the treaty series covering 1722 to 1869.

Treaties Between the United States and Indigenous Nations, Explained

| Ruth Hopkins | Teen Vogue | October 10, 2019

Explains U.S. treaty history in accessible language, emphasizing that treaties are legally binding agreements tied to Native sovereignty and land rights.

Tribal Sovereignty and Treaty Making

| Native American Parent Technical Assistance Center | Parent Center Hub | 2019

Provides an educational overview of tribal sovereignty, treaty-making, and the legal status of treaties under U.S. constitutional law.

1871: The End of Indian Treaty-Making

| Mark Hirsch | American Indian Magazine / Smithsonian | 2017

Explains how Congress ended formal treaty-making with Native nations in 1871 while leaving existing treaties legally binding.

The Treaty of Fort Laramie, 1851

| National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives | n.d.

Provides the text and historical context of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie, which recognized tribal territories on the Great Plains.

Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868

| National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives | n.d.

Explains the 1868 treaty with the Sioux and Arapaho that established the Great Sioux Reservation and remains central to Black Hills land claims.

Treaty of New Echota

| National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives | n.d.

Provides historical context for the 1835 treaty used by the United States to justify Cherokee removal despite opposition from most Cherokee people.

Treaty with the Delawares, 1778

| National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives | n.d.

Covers the first treaty between the United States and a Native nation, signed with the Lenape during the Revolutionary War.

Treaty of Greenville

| National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives | n.d.

Explains the 1795 treaty that followed Native military defeat in the Ohio Valley and opened large areas to U.S. settlement.

The Treaty of Canandaigua

| Onondaga Nation | Onondaga Nation | n.d.

Explains the 1794 Treaty of Canandaigua between the Haudenosaunee and the United States and its continuing diplomatic importance.

Canandaigua Treaty

| Ganondagan State Historic Site | Ganondagan | n.d.

Describes the treaty that affirmed peace and friendship between the Haudenosaunee and the United States.

Treaty of Hopewell

| National Park Service | U.S. Department of the Interior | n.d.

Explains the 1785 Treaty of Hopewell and its place in early U.S. treaty-making with Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw nations.

Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek

| Choctaw Nation | Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma | n.d.

Describes the treaty that led to Choctaw removal from Mississippi to Indian Territory and the devastating effects of forced relocation.

The Cherokee Removal and the Treaty of New Echota

| National Park Service | U.S. Department of the Interior | n.d.

Explains how the Treaty of New Echota became the legal basis for the Trail of Tears despite being rejected by Cherokee leaders and communities.

Indian Removal

| National Park Service | Trail of Tears National Historic Trail | n.d.

Provides background on U.S. Indian removal policy and the treaties, coercion, and military force used to relocate Native nations.

Trail of Tears

| National Park Service | Trail of Tears National Historic Trail | n.d.

National Park Service resource on the forced removal of Cherokee and other southeastern Native peoples following removal treaties and federal policy.

Treaty of Payne’s Landing

| National Park Service | U.S. Department of the Interior | n.d.

Explains the controversial 1832 treaty used to pressure Seminole removal and its role in the Second Seminole War.

The Medicine Lodge Treaty

| National Park Service | U.S. Department of the Interior | n.d.

Describes the 1867 Medicine Lodge treaties and their consequences for Plains tribes, reservations, and U.S. expansion.

Medicine Lodge Treaty

| Oklahoma Historical Society | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture | n.d.

Encyclopedic overview of the Medicine Lodge Treaty council and the treaties signed with Kiowa, Comanche, Apache, Cheyenne, and Arapaho peoples.

Fort Laramie Treaty

| Oklahoma Historical Society | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture | n.d.

Explains the Fort Laramie treaties and their effects on Plains nations and U.S. territorial expansion.

Treaties

| Oklahoma Historical Society | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture | n.d.

Overview of treaties affecting Native nations in Oklahoma, including removal, land allotment, and federal policy.

Indian Territory

| Oklahoma Historical Society | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture | n.d.

Explains how treaty-making, removal, and federal policy created Indian Territory and reshaped Native landholding.

Removal Treaties

| Oklahoma Historical Society | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture | n.d.

Discusses treaties connected to the forced removal of southeastern Native nations to Indian Territory.

The Treaty of Point Elliott

| HistoryLink | HistoryLink.org | n.d.

Explains the 1855 Treaty of Point Elliott in Washington Territory and the resulting reservations, land transfers, and treaty-right disputes.

Treaty of Point No Point

| HistoryLink | HistoryLink.org | n.d.

Describes the 1855 treaty affecting S’Klallam, Chimakum, and Skokomish peoples in present-day Washington.

Treaty of Medicine Creek

| HistoryLink | HistoryLink.org | n.d.

Covers the 1854 Treaty of Medicine Creek and the conflicts that followed over land, fishing rights, and reservation boundaries.

Treaty of Neah Bay

| HistoryLink | HistoryLink.org | n.d.

Explains the treaty between the Makah Tribe and the United States, including rights reserved for whaling, sealing, fishing, and gathering.

Treaty of Olympia

| HistoryLink | HistoryLink.org | n.d.

Describes the treaty involving Quinault and Quileute peoples and its significance for land, fishing, and reservation rights.

Boldt Decision

| HistoryLink | HistoryLink.org | n.d.

Explains the landmark 1974 court decision affirming treaty fishing rights in Washington State.

United States v. Washington

| Native American Rights Fund | NARF | n.d.

Describes litigation over treaty fishing rights in the Pacific Northwest and the enforcement of reserved rights under nineteenth-century treaties.

Treaty Fishing Rights

| Native American Rights Fund | NARF | n.d.

Summarizes legal battles to protect treaty-guaranteed fishing rights and the importance of reserved rights doctrine.

Reserved Rights Doctrine

| Native American Rights Fund / National Indian Law Library | NARF | n.d.

Explains the legal principle that treaties reserve rights not explicitly surrendered by Native nations.

Indian Treaties and the Removal Act of 1830

| Office of the Historian | U.S. Department of State | n.d.

Provides diplomatic-history context for Indian treaties and removal policy in the nineteenth-century United States.

The Indian Removal Act and the Trail of Tears

| Library of Congress | Library of Congress | n.d.

Educational resource describing removal policy, treaty pressure, and the forced relocation of Native peoples.

Native American Treaties

| Library of Congress | Library of Congress Research Guides | n.d.

Research guide to Native American treaties, treaty texts, maps, and primary sources in Library of Congress collections.

Treaties Between the United States and Native Americans

| Library of Congress | Library of Congress Research Guides | n.d.

Legal research guide to U.S. treaties with Native nations, including treaty compilations and federal Indian law resources.

Ratified Indian Treaty Documents

| National Archives Catalog | National Archives | n.d.

Catalog record for the National Archives treaty series containing original ratified treaties between the United States and Native nations.

Constitution and Treaties

| Legal Information Institute | Cornell Law School | n.d.

Explains Indian treaties as a legal concept, including their constitutional status and interpretation in U.S. law.

Indian Treaty Rights

| Native American Rights Fund / National Indian Law Library | NARF | n.d.

Research portal for treaty rights, treaty texts, legal cases, and federal Indian law resources.

Tribal Sovereignty

| National Congress of American Indians | NCAI | n.d.

Explains tribal sovereignty and government-to-government relationships, the political foundation behind treaty-making with Native nations.

Two Row Wampum Renewal Campaign

| Two Row Wampum Renewal Campaign | Honor the Two Row | n.d.

Explains the Two Row Wampum as a Haudenosaunee diplomatic agreement symbolizing parallel paths, mutual respect, and noninterference.

Two Row Wampum

| Onondaga Nation | Onondaga Nation | n.d.

Describes the Guswenta, or Two Row Wampum, and its meaning in Haudenosaunee treaty diplomacy.

Wampum

| Onondaga Nation | Onondaga Nation | n.d.

Explains wampum belts as records of agreements, diplomacy, and treaty relationships among Haudenosaunee peoples and colonial governments.

Treaty of Albany

| Onondaga Nation | Onondaga Nation | n.d.

Describes the Treaty of Albany and the role of wampum in documenting diplomatic agreements.

Nation to Nation: Treaties Between the United States and American Indian Nations

| National Museum of the American Indian | Smithsonian Institution | 2014

Digital exhibition explaining treaty diplomacy, coercion, broken promises, and the continuing importance of treaties between Native nations and the United States.

Understanding and Using Treaty Rights

| Native Governance Center | Native Governance Center | n.d.

Practical guide explaining treaty rights, why they matter, and how Native nations and allies can understand treaty obligations.

Treaties Matter

| Minnesota Humanities Center, Minnesota Indian Affairs Council, Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian | Treaties Matter | n.d.

Educational resource explaining treaties between Dakota and Ojibwe nations and the United States, with teaching tools and historical context.

Why Treaties Matter

| Minnesota Humanities Center | Treaties Matter | n.d.

Explains why treaties remain living legal documents that continue to shape sovereignty, land, and government responsibilities.

Treaties: The Story of the Dakota and Ojibwe

| Minnesota Humanities Center | Treaties Matter | n.d.

Presents a treaty-history overview focused on Dakota and Ojibwe nations in Minnesota and the consequences of U.S. expansion.

Kappler’s Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties

| Oklahoma State University Library | OSU Digital Collections | n.d.

Digital collection of Charles Kappler’s treaty and legal compilations, a major reference source for U.S. Indian treaty texts.

Tribal Treaties Database

| Oklahoma State University Library | Tribal Treaties Database | n.d.

Searchable database of treaties between Indigenous nations and the United States, useful for locating treaty texts and metadata.

Additional Resources: Tribal Treaties Database

| Oklahoma State University Library | Tribal Treaties Database | n.d.

Provides links to treaty compilations, archival sources, and other tools for researching Indigenous treaty history.

Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties

| Charles J. Kappler | Digital Commons / CSUMB | n.d.

Digitized access to Kappler’s multivolume compilation of U.S. Indian affairs laws and treaties.

Treaties Still Matter

| Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian | Native Knowledge 360° | n.d.

Educational lesson on Plains treaties, Native sovereignty, and the continuing relevance of treaty obligations.

Northern Plains Treaties

| Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian | Native Knowledge 360° | n.d.

Digital learning resource on treaties involving Northern Plains Native nations and the United States.

The Horse Nation and Treaty Making

| Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian | Native Knowledge 360° | n.d.

Explores Plains Native history, diplomacy, and treaty relationships in the context of land, culture, and sovereignty.

Native New York: Treaties and Land

| Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian | Native Knowledge 360° | n.d.

Educational resource on Haudenosaunee history, diplomacy, land, and treaty relationships.

Haudenosaunee Guide for Educators

| Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian | Smithsonian | n.d.

Teaching guide explaining Haudenosaunee history, diplomacy, wampum, treaties, and sovereignty.

Native-Land.ca

| Native Land Digital | Native-Land.ca | n.d.

Interactive map of Indigenous territories, languages, and treaties that helps users locate treaty areas and understand land relationships.

Native Land Digital: Treaties

| Native Land Digital | Native-Land.ca | n.d.

Provides guidance on territory acknowledgments and encourages learning about treaties, Indigenous lands, and ongoing responsibilities.

Indigenous Treaties in Australia

| Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies | AIATSIS | n.d.

Explains treaty discussions in Australia, where no national treaty was made at colonization and modern treaty processes are developing.

Treaty in Victoria

| First Peoples–State Relations | Government of Victoria | n.d.

Explains Victoria’s treaty process with First Peoples, including truth-telling, negotiation frameworks, and self-determination.

Yoorrook Justice Commission

| Yoorrook Justice Commission | Victoria | n.d.

Truth-telling commission examining colonization, land dispossession, and injustices that inform Victoria’s treaty process.

Treaty in Queensland

| Queensland Government | Queensland | n.d.

Provides information on Queensland’s treaty pathway and reconciliation work with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

South Australia Treaty

| Government of South Australia | South Australia | n.d.

Describes South Australia’s treaty-related work and engagement with Aboriginal communities.

Treaty Authority Victoria

| Treaty Authority | Victoria | n.d.

Independent body supporting treaty negotiations between First Peoples and the State of Victoria.

Makarrata Commission

| Uluru Statement from the Heart | Uluru Dialogue | n.d.

Presents the call for Voice, Treaty, and Truth through a Makarrata Commission to supervise agreement-making and truth-telling in Australia.

The Batman Treaty

| National Museum of Australia | NMA | n.d.

Explains the 1835 Batman Treaty, an attempted agreement with Kulin peoples that colonial authorities later rejected.

Batman’s Treaty

| Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies | AIATSIS | n.d.

Describes the contested Batman Treaty and its significance in Australian debates over land, consent, and sovereignty.

No Treaty in Australia

| National Museum of Australia | NMA | n.d.

Explains the absence of a national treaty in Australia and why treaty-making remains a central issue for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

Aboriginal Land Rights

| National Museum of Australia | NMA | n.d.

Discusses land rights developments in Australia, relevant to treaty debates and Indigenous sovereignty.

Mabo Decision

| National Museum of Australia | NMA | n.d.

Explains the 1992 decision recognizing native title, a major legal turning point in Indigenous land rights and treaty discussions.

Native Title

| Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies | AIATSIS | n.d.

Explains native title in Australia and how it relates to land rights, sovereignty, and treaty debates.

International Treaties with Indigenous Peoples

| United Nations | United Nations | n.d.

Provides the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which recognizes Indigenous rights to treaties, agreements, and constructive arrangements with states.

Study on Treaties, Agreements and Other Constructive Arrangements

| Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights | OHCHR | n.d.

UN resource on treaties, agreements, and constructive arrangements between states and Indigenous peoples.

Indigenous Peoples and Treaties

| Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights | OHCHR | n.d.

Human rights overview connecting Indigenous self-determination, land rights, and international recognition of treaty relationships.