Christian Nationalism and Religious Liberty
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Christian Nationalism and Religious Liberty
Christian nationalism and religious liberty intersect in one of the most contested areas of American public life: the relationship between religious faith, national identity, individual freedom, and government authority. Supporters and critics of ideas described as Christian nationalist often use the language of religious liberty, but they may mean substantially different things by it.
The debate involves several distinct questions. Christians and other religious Americans have constitutional rights to worship, speak about their beliefs, organize religious institutions, participate in politics, and advocate policies informed by their faith. At the same time, the American constitutional tradition includes restrictions on government establishment of religion and protections for citizens who belong to minority religions or no religion.
Much of the controversy surrounding Christian nationalism therefore concerns where protected religious participation ends and government preference for Christianity begins.
Defining Christian Nationalism and Religious Liberty
Christian nationalism does not have a single universally accepted definition. Academic researchers, journalists, religious organizations, political advocates, and critics use the term in different ways.
In much of the scholarly literature, Christian nationalism refers to an ideological connection between Christianity and national identity in which Christianity is viewed as having a special relationship with the nation, its government, its history, or its political institutions. Some versions emphasize cultural heritage or moral influence, while stronger versions support explicit governmental recognition or preference for Christianity.
This distinction matters because ordinary Christian political participation is not necessarily Christian nationalism. Religious citizens may vote, organize, advocate legislation, hold public office, discuss religious values, or defend religious freedom without necessarily advocating a government-defined Christian national identity.
Religious liberty is similarly multidimensional. It can include freedom of worship, freedom of conscience, religious expression, institutional autonomy, protection against religious discrimination, and the ability of religious people and organizations to participate in public life. It also includes disputes over whether government actions favoring one religion can limit the religious liberty of people outside the favored tradition.
The First Amendment and Church-State Relations
American debates over Christian nationalism frequently center on the religion clauses of the First Amendment. The Establishment Clause limits government establishment of religion, while the Free Exercise Clause protects religious exercise.
These principles can generate competing claims.
One approach emphasizes that religious liberty requires strong protection against government interference with religious individuals and institutions. From this perspective, restrictions on religious expression, conscience, religious schools, or faith-based organizations can themselves constitute threats to religious freedom.
Another approach emphasizes government neutrality toward religion. From this perspective, religious liberty is endangered when government promotes Christianity, endorses particular religious doctrines, or creates policies that place members of minority religions and nonreligious citizens in a subordinate position.
The resulting debate is not simply between religion and secularism. Many of the organizations and individuals criticizing Christian nationalism are themselves Christian or religiously affiliated and argue that separation of church and state protects religion as well as government.
Religious Liberty for Christians and Religious Liberty for All
A recurring theme in the material is whether religious liberty should be understood primarily as protection for religious institutions and believers or as a reciprocal principle applying equally to Christians, Jews, Muslims, Hindus, members of other faiths, and people without religious beliefs.
Organizations such as the Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty, Interfaith Alliance, and several Protestant denominations distinguish Christian nationalism from ordinary Christian political participation. They argue that Christians should enjoy extensive religious freedom while government remains neutral among religions.
Other religious conservatives caution that the term Christian nationalism can be applied too broadly. They argue that conventional Christian political advocacy, public religious expression, conscience protections, and efforts to strengthen free-exercise rights should not automatically be classified as nationalist attempts to establish Christianity.
This disagreement illustrates one of the central problems in the debate: participants may agree that religious liberty is important while disagreeing substantially about which government actions protect it and which actions violate it.
Religious Minorities and Freedom of Conscience
The treatment of religious minorities is a major test of competing understandings of religious liberty.
The collected research examines attitudes toward Muslims, Jews, atheists, and other groups as well as broader questions of religious pluralism. Some studies investigate whether Christian-nationalist beliefs correlate with reduced tolerance toward particular religious minorities or with support for restrictions on their civil liberties.
Other sources emphasize that support for Christian identity and support for religious pluralism are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Research suggests that some people can simultaneously identify with Christian-nationalist ideas and affirm religious tolerance, although perceptions that Christianity is culturally or politically threatened may affect those attitudes.
Historically, debates over religious establishment have also involved Christian minorities. Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Latter-day Saints, and other religious communities have at various times supported strong protections for freedom of conscience because of experiences with religious majorities or government interference.
These histories complicate any simple division between Christian and secular positions on church-state separation.
Public Schools and Religious Expression
Public education has become one of the most visible arenas for disputes involving Christian nationalism and religious liberty.
Controversies have involved the Ten Commandments in classrooms, Bible instruction, school prayer, religious chaplains, religious curricula, and the distinction between teaching about religion academically and government-sponsored religious instruction.
The constitutional questions are often highly specific. Students generally possess rights of personal religious expression, and schools may teach about religion in an academic context. The more difficult disputes concern when actions by teachers, administrators, legislatures, or school systems become government endorsement of religious belief.
Supporters of expanded religious expression frequently argue that religion has been improperly excluded from public institutions and that religious students and teachers should receive equal treatment.
Opponents argue that government-sponsored religious exercises or displays can pressure students and families who do not share the majority faith and can transform public schools into instruments for promoting a particular religious tradition.
These conflicts demonstrate the difference between allowing religion in public life and having government itself sponsor religious messages.
The Religious Liberty Commission and Federal Policy
Federal policy has added another dimension to the debate. The presidential Religious Liberty Commission, established in 2025, was directed to examine issues including religious education, conscience protections, religious expression, and threats to religious exercise.
The Commission's work has generated sharply different interpretations.
The administration and supporters of its approach describe the effort as an attempt to strengthen constitutional protections for religious exercise, address discrimination against religious believers, and protect religious expression in public institutions.
Critics, including church-state separation groups, secular organizations, and some religious organizations, have argued that the Commission gives disproportionate attention to conservative Christian concerns and risks treating government support for Christianity as equivalent to religious liberty.
The disagreement illustrates a larger dispute over the meaning of neutrality. One side may view accommodation of religious practice as correcting discrimination, while another may view the same policy as granting government preference to religion or to a particular religious tradition.
Public Opinion
Survey research shows that Americans hold complex and sometimes overlapping views about Christianity, government, and religious liberty.
Many Americans support a public role for religion while also expressing support for church-state separation. Some favor government promotion of Christian moral values without supporting Christianity as an official religion. Others prefer more complete government neutrality toward religious values.
Public attitudes also vary substantially by political affiliation and religious tradition.
The research therefore suggests that attitudes toward Christian nationalism cannot always be reduced to a simple choice between religion and secularism. Americans may support religious expression while opposing establishment, favor Christian cultural influence while rejecting an official religion, or support church-state separation while believing that religious voices should remain active in public debate.
Historical Arguments About a Christian Nation
Arguments over whether the United States was founded as a Christian nation play a major role in contemporary disputes.
Supporters of a stronger connection between Christianity and American government may point to Christian influences on early American culture, political rhetoric, moral philosophy, and the beliefs of many early Americans.
Critics emphasize the Constitution's lack of an established national religion, the First Amendment, debates among the founders, the Treaty of Tripoli, and historical conflicts involving established churches and religious dissenters.
The historical record contains both extensive religious influence and significant resistance to governmental religious establishment. Consequently, debates over the founding frequently depend on what is meant by the phrase Christian nation.
A society can be culturally influenced by Christianity without constitutionally establishing Christianity, and disagreement over this distinction continues to shape modern Christian-nationalism debates.
Christian Responses to Christian Nationalism
Christian communities themselves are divided over Christian nationalism.
Presbyterian, Baptist, Lutheran, Methodist, United Church of Christ, Anglican, Seventh-day Adventist, Catholic, evangelical, and other Christian sources in the collected material offer a broad range of perspectives.
Some Christian leaders regard Christian nationalism as theologically problematic because it can merge allegiance to Christianity with loyalty to a nation, political party, racial identity, or political movement. They argue that Christianity transcends national boundaries and that religious freedom should apply equally to all people.
Other Christian writers object to definitions of Christian nationalism they believe are overly expansive. They argue that Christian participation in politics, advocacy of traditional moral principles, defense of religious institutions, or acknowledgment of Christianity's historical influence should not automatically be characterized as nationalism.
Still others attempt to distinguish between different forms of Christian national identity, arguing that some versions may coexist with constitutional government and religious pluralism while others seek governmental privilege or religious establishment.
These internal disagreements demonstrate that Christian nationalism should not be treated as synonymous with Christianity, evangelicalism, religious conservatism, patriotism, or Christian political participation generally.
Religious Pluralism and Equal Citizenship
At the center of the religious-liberty debate is a fundamental question about equal citizenship in a religiously diverse country.
A pluralistic model does not require religious citizens to abandon their beliefs when entering public life. Instead, it seeks a political system in which people with different religious and nonreligious convictions can participate without government defining full national membership according to adherence to a particular faith.
Christian-nationalist approaches vary in how they address this question. Some advocates emphasize Christianity's cultural or historical importance while maintaining that all citizens should possess equal legal rights. More explicit forms may favor governmental recognition of Christianity or public policies designed to preserve a specifically Christian national character.
The practical significance of those distinctions becomes visible in disputes over schools, religious displays, immigration, minority religions, conscience exemptions, public ceremonies, and government religious messaging.
International and Comparative Perspectives
Christian nationalism is not exclusively an American phenomenon.
Comparative scholarship examines forms of national Christianity in Europe, Africa, and other regions. These studies show that relationships among Christianity, national identity, established churches, religious pluralism, democracy, and political authority vary considerably across countries.
International comparisons also demonstrate that church-state arrangements exist along a spectrum. Some democracies maintain established or historically privileged churches while protecting substantial religious freedom, whereas other systems emphasize stronger institutional separation.
The American debate therefore reflects both distinctive constitutional traditions and broader questions about how religious majorities coexist with increasingly diverse societies.
Conclusion
Christian nationalism and religious liberty overlap but are not synonymous. Religious liberty protects the ability of Christians and other religious people to worship, speak, organize, advocate, and participate fully in civic life. The central controversy concerns whether religious freedom also permits—or is threatened by—government identification with Christianity as a preferred national faith.
The debate involves two constitutional principles that can sometimes appear to pull in different directions: protecting religious exercise and preventing governmental establishment of religion. Disagreement arises over how those principles should be applied to public schools, religious displays, conscience protections, government programs, national identity, and the rights of religious minorities.
The collected material also demonstrates that the dispute cannot accurately be described simply as Christians versus secular Americans. Christians themselves hold sharply different views about nationalism, church-state separation, political participation, and religious liberty.
Ultimately, the relationship between Christian nationalism and religious liberty turns on how a society balances religious expression, freedom of conscience, government neutrality, historical religious influence, and equal citizenship in an increasingly pluralistic nation.
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Federal Government, Religious Liberty Commission & Administration Policy
1. | Michelle Boorstein | The Washington Post | September 14, 2026
Profiles Rutherford Institute founder John Whitehead and his criticism of what he sees as the growing partisan and nationalist orientation of the Christian religious-liberty legal movement.
2. | Liz Hayes | Americans United for Separation of Church and State | August 3, 2026
Contrasts Americans United's understanding of religious freedom with policies and rhetoric it associates with Christian nationalism.
3. | Associated Press / The Washington Post | July 27, 2026
Reports litigation concerning whether the Religious Liberty Commission adequately represents competing religious and ideological perspectives.
4. | American Humanist Association | American Humanist Association | July 23, 2026
Reports advocacy by secular organizations concerning constitutional democracy, government neutrality toward religion, and freedom of belief.
5. | Andre Wang | North American Division of Seventh-day Adventists | July 20, 2026
Reports the Adventist Church's appeal to the federal Religious Liberty Commission to preserve church-state separation and freedom of conscience.
6. | Tranée McDonald | Interfaith Alliance | July 13, 2026
Presents Interfaith Alliance's criticism of the Religious Liberty Commission's draft report and argues for religious-freedom protections that apply across faith traditions.
7. | Alessandro Terenzoni | Americans United for Separation of Church and State | July 2, 2026
Critiques the presidential Religious Liberty Commission's draft report and argues that its approach weakens church-state separation.
8. | American Humanist Association | American Humanist Association | June 29, 2026
Presents a secular humanist critique of the Religious Liberty Commission report and its interpretation of church-state separation.
9. | FFRF Staff | Freedom From Religion Foundation | June 29, 2026
Presents FFRF's criticism of the Religious Liberty Commission report, particularly its interpretation of the Establishment Clause.
10. | U.S. Department of Justice | June 26, 2026
Summarizes the Commission's official findings and recommendations concerning religious exercise, education, conscience rights, and public religious expression.
11. | Interfaith Alliance | Interfaith Alliance | June 5, 2026
Responds to changes involving religious organizations and the Department of Defense and discusses concerns about equal treatment among faith traditions.
12. | Associated Press | AP News | May 2026
Reports federal participation in a major prayer gathering and criticism from organizations that associate the event with Christian nationalism.
13. | Interfaith Alliance | Interfaith Alliance | April 30, 2026
Critiques the federal government's anti-Christian-bias initiative and argues that religious-liberty enforcement should encompass all religious communities.
14. | Americans United | April 30, 2026
Offers a church-state separation organization's response to the federal government's investigation of alleged anti-Christian discrimination.
15. | The White House | April 5, 2026
Provides the administration's own description of policies it says protect Christians and strengthen religious liberty.
16. | FFRF Staff | Freedom From Religion Foundation | February 9, 2026
Critiques the Commission's hearings for concentrating on certain Christian grievances while, in FFRF's view, overlooking other church-state concerns.
17. | U.S. Department of Justice | 2025–2026
Official repository for hearings and other primary documents useful for comparing the Commission's stated objectives with outside critiques.
18. | Americans United | 2025–2026
Provides litigation documents and analysis challenging the composition and agenda of the presidential commission.
19. | U.S. Department of Justice | 2026
Collects the Commission's draft report, hearing transcripts, testimony, recommendations, and related primary-source material.
20. | American Humanist Association | American Humanist Association | September 30, 2025
Discusses congressional efforts concerning church-state separation from a humanist perspective.
21. | FFRF Staff | Freedom From Religion Foundation | September 30, 2025
Gives FFRF's account of a Religious Liberty Commission hearing focused on religion in public education.
22. | Freedom From Religion Foundation | FFRF | September 10, 2025
Criticizes State Department religious messaging that FFRF argues improperly favors Christianity over other religions and nonreligion.
23. | BJC Staff | Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty | September 8, 2025
Responds to a presidential Religious Liberty Commission meeting and reiterates BJC's distinction between religious liberty for all and government preference for Christianity.
24. | Noah Berlatsky | Sojourners | August 20, 2025
Examines federal guidance expanding religious expression in government workplaces and critics' concerns about implementation.
25. | Brian Kaylor | Word&Way | June 19, 2025
Critiques the first meeting of the Religious Liberty Commission from a Baptist church-state-separation perspective.
26. | The White House | May 16, 2025
Identifies religious, legal, and lay advisers appointed to help shape the administration's religious-liberty agenda.
27. | The White House | May 1, 2025
Presents the administration's rationale for the Commission and its conception of contemporary threats to religious liberty.
28. | Donald J. Trump | The White House | May 1, 2025
Primary-source executive order establishing the Commission and identifying religious education, conscience rights, religious displays, and free exercise as areas for study.
First Amendment, Constitutional Law & Church–State Separation
29. | Opinion | The Washington Post | July 10, 2026
Argues for a distinction between historically rooted American civil religion, strict secularism, and explicit Christian nationalism.
30. | David Morris | Americans United for Separation of Church and State | July 1, 2026
Uses the nation's 250th anniversary to argue that freedom of conscience and church-state separation are central elements of American religious liberty.
31. | Scott A. Leadingham | Freedom Forum | May 21, 2026
Reviews definitions of Christian nationalism alongside First Amendment protections for establishment, free exercise, and religious expression.
32. | Amanda Tyler; Steven Green; Bill Leonard | BJC | April 30, 2026
Examines the historical origins of Christian-nation claims and their relationship to the American tradition of religious liberty.
33. | Public Discourse Contributor | Public Discourse | April 2026
Examines philosophical and constitutional understandings of religious freedom and the responsibilities of government toward religious communities.
34. | Hunter Baker | Public Discourse | October 2025
Presents a conservative Christian argument for maintaining institutional separation between church and state while permitting religious participation in politics.
35. | Mark David Hall | Georgetown University Berkley Center | 2025
Presents an optimistic assessment of American religious-liberty protections and emphasizes constitutional safeguards for religious exercise.
36. | Patrick Sawyer | William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal | 2024
Examines Madison's approach to establishment and proposes legal responses to modern Christian-nationalist church-state claims.
37. | Jace Woodrum | ACLU of South Carolina | November 13, 2023
Presents the ACLU's argument that Christian nationalism threatens the balance between free exercise of religion and government non-establishment.
38. | Rob Boston | Americans United | October 31, 2023
Discusses the Treaty of Tripoli and its role in contemporary arguments over whether the United States was constitutionally founded as Christian.
39. | The Washington Post | April 26, 2023
Traces historical disputes over Sabbath laws, Sunday mail, Christian nationalism, minority religions, and religious accommodations.
40. | Peter J. Smith; Robert W. Tuttle | George Washington University Law School | 2023
Examines competing historical narratives about the Establishment Clause and their consequences for contemporary church-state law.
41. | Kelsey Dallas | Deseret News | July 4, 2022
Reviews major Supreme Court religion decisions and disagreements about where free exercise ends and government establishment begins.
42. | Jennifer Rubin | The Washington Post | April 20, 2022
Opinion commentary connecting contemporary Supreme Court religion cases to broader debates over free exercise and establishment.
43. | Steven K. Green | Roger Williams University Law Review | Spring 2021
Examines the constitutional and legal ramifications of Christian nationalism, including disputes over the Establishment Clause and America's religious identity.
44. | Tisa Wenger | Georgetown University Berkley Center | December 7, 2020
Examines the political use of religious-freedom language and its changing meaning within American political conflicts.
45. | Richard W. Garnett | SCOTUSblog | August 2020
Reviews Supreme Court religious-freedom doctrine and argues that recent decisions clarified protections for religious institutions and individuals.
46. | Berkley Center Staff | Georgetown University | January 23, 2020
Summarizes scholarly discussion about Christianity in American public life and the constitutional boundaries surrounding religious political participation.
47. | Amanda Tyler | Georgetown University Berkley Center | 2020
Argues for a broad understanding of religious freedom that protects people of every faith and people who claim no religious faith.
48. | Caroline Mala Corbin | Alabama Law Review | 2020
Analyzes Supreme Court religion jurisprudence and argues that several doctrinal developments can facilitate forms of white Christian nationalism.
49. | Amanda Tyler; David Saperstein; Melissa Rogers; Holly Hollman | BJC | September 25, 2019
Emphasizes that disagreement over First Amendment religion law is not automatically Christian nationalism and explores the complexity of church-state doctrine.
50. | Caroline Mala Corbin | Washington and Lee Law Review | 2019
Examines legislative prayer and argues that government-sponsored Christian prayers can reinforce an understanding of national identity that privileges Christianity.
Public Schools, Prayer, Curriculum & Religious Displays
51. | Legislative Study Group | May 11, 2026
Examines Texas controversies involving Muslims, public-school religion, religious displays, vouchers, and Christian-nationalist rhetoric.
52. | Americans United | 2025–2026
Tracks litigation over Texas Ten Commandments classroom requirements and their implications for families of multiple faiths.
53. | Amanda Tyler; Bill Leonard | BJC | 2026
Discusses Christian nationalism, Ten Commandments controversies, religious liberty, and church-state separation from a Baptist perspective.
54. | Kevin J. Burke; Heidi Hadley | National Education Policy Center | November 4, 2025
Analyzes Christian-nationalist influence on public-school policy, curriculum, book restrictions, and debates over government-supported religion.
55. | Liz Hayes | Americans United | November 3, 2025
Reviews litigation involving Bible instruction and other Oklahoma education policies associated by the organization with Christian nationalism.
56. | Samuel L. Perry | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | August 25, 2025
Examines support for teacher-led public-school prayer and its relationship to Christian nationalism and proposed responses to school shootings.
57. | Amanda Tyler et al. | BJC | June 26, 2025
Discusses Texas policies involving public religion and distinguishes religious freedom from government preference for religion.
58. | Brock Lewis | Discover Education | May 7, 2025
Studies Christian nationalism in Christian schooling and its broader relationship to American public-education controversies.
Features a Texas legislator discussing Christian nationalism, public education, religious faith, and church-state separation.
60. | Mary Juzwik et al. | Reading Research Quarterly | 2025
Examines how biblical interpretation and Christian-nationalist narratives can influence literacy education and public-school curricular debates.
61. | Letter to the Editor | Education Week | August 13, 2024
Offers a perspective on how public schools might address moral or spiritual questions without creating government religious establishment.
62. | Religion News Service / The Conversation | July 8, 2024
Examines the constitutional distinction between teaching about the Bible academically and government-sponsored religious instruction.
63. | Svante Myrick | People For | July 7, 2024
Argues that mandatory religious displays reflect a broader effort to redefine church-state separation.
64. | Julia Conley | Common Dreams | June 2024
Reports criticism of Oklahoma's Bible-teaching requirement by organizations concerned about church-state separation.
65. | PBS NewsHour | PBS | 2024
Examines Louisiana's Ten Commandments classroom law and competing constitutional arguments involving religious expression and government establishment.
66. | ACLU and Coalition Partners | American Civil Liberties Union | 2024
Describes opposition from civil-rights and religious groups to government programs placing religious chaplains in public schools.
67. | The Free Speech Center | 2024
Analyzes the Oklahoma Bible mandate through Establishment Clause, free-speech, and religious-freedom principles.
Provides documents and arguments from families challenging Louisiana's requirement that public classrooms display the Ten Commandments.
69. | To The Contrary | PBS | 2024
Discusses differing interpretations of Project 2025 and whether its religious-policy proposals would alter church-state boundaries.
70. | Modern American History | 2023
Shows how evangelical school-prayer activism interacted with a broader pluralist consensus supporting student free expression.
71. | Researchers in Laws | Laws | November 30, 2021
Examines conflicts among the Establishment, Free Exercise, and Free Speech Clauses in public education.
72. | Amanda Tyler | Religion News Service | January 17, 2020
Argues that students' constitutional right to voluntary prayer can be protected without government endorsement of a Christian national identity.
Polling, Social Science, Definitions & Measurement
73. | Samuel L. Perry et al. | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | September 17, 2026
Studies relationships among Christian nationalism, religious beliefs, charitable responsibility, and attitudes concerning social justice.
74. | Richard Lewis Dixon | SSRN | September 2, 2026
Presents an argument that certain forms of Christian national identity may coexist with religious pluralism, offering a contrasting interpretation of the debate.
75. | Brooklyn Walker; Paul Djupe | Religion News Service / The Conversation | August 21, 2026
Reports research finding that some Christian-nationalist respondents simultaneously affirm religious pluralism, while perceptions of threats to Christians can reduce political tolerance.
76. | FFRF Staff | Freedom From Religion Foundation | July 15, 2026
Disputes an alternative religious-liberty index that gives weight to exemptions, conscience protections, and other policies favored by religious conservatives.
77. | Freedom From Religion Foundation | FFRF | May 14, 2026
Discusses public-opinion findings concerning church-state separation and government promotion of Christianity.
78. | Chip Rotolo; Gregory A. Smith | Pew Research Center | May 14, 2026
Examines attitudes toward Christian nationalism, church-state separation, an official Christian religion, biblical influence on law, and religion's role in government.
79. | Paul A. Djupe; Brooklyn Walker | Politics and Religion | March 26, 2026
Finds that pluralistic religious beliefs and Christian-nationalist beliefs can coexist, especially where respondents perceive significant social threats.
80. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 17, 2026
Maps Christian nationalist beliefs nationwide and explores their relationship with religious identity, political affiliation, and attitudes about American government.
81. | BJC | 2026
Explains BJC's distinction between ordinary public religious expression and Christian nationalism and its view of how nationalism affects religious freedom.
82. | Researchers in Public Opinion Quarterly | Public Opinion Quarterly | May 13, 2025
Examines how racial identity moderates relationships between Christian nationalism and attitudes toward politics and national identity.
83. | Law & Liberty | Law & Liberty Podcast | March 4, 2025
Discusses competing definitions of Christian nationalism and whether the concept is sometimes applied too broadly to religious conservatives.
84. | Brooklyn Walker; Paul A. Djupe | Political Research Quarterly | February 14, 2025
Studies Christian nationalism among Americans with different sexual identities and considers how religious and political identities intersect.
85. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 4, 2025
Provides nationwide survey data on Christian nationalist beliefs and their demographic, religious, and political correlates.
86. | Religion News Service | Religion News Service | January 16, 2025
Examines scholarly debate over how dangerous Christian nationalism is and how researchers should define and measure the phenomenon.
87. | Researchers in Pastoral Psychology | Pastoral Psychology | 2025
Distinguishes implicit support for expanded public religious expression from explicit support for government codification of Christianity.
88. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | October 30, 2024
Measures resistance to Christian-nationalist ideas among religious traditions, political groups, and demographic populations.
89. | Chip Rotolo; Gregory A. Smith; Jonathan Evans | Pew Research Center | March 15, 2024
Surveys public attitudes toward church-state separation, biblical influence on laws, official Christianity, and Christian nationalism.
90. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 28, 2024
Provides state-level measures of Christian-nationalist beliefs and analyzes their relationship to religion, party, race, and education.
91. | George Hawley | Law & Liberty | 2024
Examines Christian nationalism as a political category and considers whether other ideological classifications better explain portions of the religious right.
92. | Researchers in Politics and Religion | Politics and Religion | 2024
Examines divisions among conservative Protestant clergy over nationalism, political authority, and the legitimate use of government force.
93. | Researchers in Ethnic and Racial Studies | Ethnic and Racial Studies | 2024
Studies how race, gender, and Christian nationalism relate to differing priorities concerning equality and individual liberty.
94. | Researchers in Religions | Religions | 2024
Compares Christian nationalism, civic republicanism, and radical secularism as competing approaches to religion and national identity in American politics.
95. | Amanda Tyler; Holly Hollman | BJC | 2024
Works through examples to distinguish Christian nationalism from protected religious speech, religious belief, and ordinary faith-based political participation.
96. | Fanhao Nie | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | November 6, 2023 / 2024 issue
Studies whether Christian-nationalist beliefs are associated with negative attitudes toward atheists.
97. | Gillian Richards Augros | The Heritage Foundation | May 9, 2023
Argues that the term Christian nationalism is sometimes used imprecisely to characterize conventional conservative Christian political participation.
98. | Samuel L. Perry et al. | Sociology of Religion | May 8, 2023
Finds Christian nationalism associated with prioritizing some rights, including religious freedom, differently from other constitutional and civic rights.
99. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 8, 2023
Provides national survey data on Christian-nationalist beliefs and attitudes toward religious and cultural pluralism.
100. | Mark David Hall | Law & Liberty | 2023
Reviews claims that conservative Christians seek theocratic government and evaluates historical and contemporary evidence offered for those claims.
101. | Amanda Tyler; Holly Hollman | BJC | 2023
Reviews new survey research and discusses how Christian nationalism differs from Christianity and ordinary religious participation.
102. | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
Surveys what Americans mean by a Christian nation and records both favorable and unfavorable interpretations of Christian nationalism.
103. | Amanda Tyler; Holly Hollman | BJC | October 20, 2022
Reflects on changing definitions and public debate surrounding Christian nationalism and emphasizes distinctions between nationalism and ordinary religious expression.
104. | John D. Wilsey | Law & Liberty | September 26, 2022
Argues that Christian nationalism encompasses several distinct ideas and cautions against treating all forms of religious patriotism as equivalent.
105. | Mark David Hall | Law & Liberty | 2022
Reviews scholarship critical of Christian nationalism and questions some definitions and historical interpretations used in the debate.
106. | First Liberty Institute | 2022
Presents a contrasting perspective arguing that overbroad use of the Christian-nationalist label can stigmatize constitutionally protected religious expression.
107. | Amanda Tyler; Holly Hollman | BJC | 2022
Discusses Christian-nationalist electoral rhetoric and its implications for religious freedom and political participation.
108. | Samuel L. Perry et al. | Nations and Nationalism | August 31, 2021
Finds Christian-nationalist beliefs and perceptions of anti-Christian discrimination strongly associated with prioritizing religious freedom as an electoral issue.
109. | Samuel L. Perry et al. | Sociology of Religion | 2021
Examines Christian nationalism and opposition to government restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic, including appeals to liberty and religious freedom.
Religious Minorities, Pluralism, Equality & Civil Rights
110. | Deseret News | July 4, 2026
Uses Latter-day Saint history to argue for religious liberty extending equally to Christians, Muslims, Jews, Hindus, other faiths, and nonbelievers.
111. | Multiple contributors | Center for American Progress | June 15, 2026
Presents essays from religious, legal, and civic leaders advocating an inclusive conception of religious liberty amid renewed Christian-nationalist debates.
112. | Fred Clark | Patheos | June 11, 2026
Discusses how members of religious minorities may interpret Christian nationalism and the relationship between majority religious power and equal citizenship.
113. | Tom Suozzi | America | June 1, 2026
Presents a Catholic politician's argument that religious faith should inform civic life voluntarily rather than through government imposition.
114. | A. Brian Stoller | Religion News Service | March 25, 2026
Argues that Christian-nationalist approaches to citizenship can make political rights more conditional and discusses the SAVE Act as an example.
115. | BJC Staff | Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty | 2025
Argues that protecting religious liberty requires cooperation across religious and political differences and equal treatment of people of all faiths and none.
116. | Central Conference of American Rabbis | CCAR | 2025
Presents a Reform Jewish resolution addressing white Christian nationalism and its implications for Jewish communities, democracy, and religious pluralism.
117. | Andrew M. McGinnis | Law & Liberty | September 18, 2024
Argues for reciprocal religious-liberty protections that apply consistently to religious groups with different theological and political beliefs.
118. | Nilay Saiya; Stuti Manchanda | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | September 2, 2024
Quantitatively investigates the relationship between Christian nationalism and attacks directed at American religious minorities.
119. | Sachi Edwards | Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies | April 5, 2024
Examines the implications of white Christian nationalism and responses to it for religious minorities in the United States.
120. | America Staff | America | January 5, 2024
Examines white Christian nationalism, the religious right, political identity, and concerns about the relationship between Christianity and American citizenship.
121. | United Church of Christ | United Church of Christ | 2024
Examines competing uses of religious-freedom language and argues for protections extending to people across religious traditions.
122. | Georgetown University Berkley Center | Georgetown University | March 16, 2023
Presents an academic discussion of Christian nationalism and questions about who is understood as belonging within the American political community.
123. | Jacob Dennen; Paul A. Djupe | Social Science Quarterly | February 22, 2023
Tests the relationship between Christian-nationalist beliefs, antisemitic attitudes, Christian social dominance, and perceptions of persecution.
124. | Anti-Defamation League; Tel Aviv University | Antisemitism Worldwide | 2023
Includes analysis of relationships among antisemitism, Christian nationalism, political movements, and religious minority concerns.
125. | Presbyterian News Service | Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) | September 30, 2022
Reports an interfaith panel exploring Christian nationalism, racial identity, democracy, and religious pluralism.
126. | United Church of Christ | United Church of Christ | September 12, 2022
Advocates religious pluralism and equal participation by different faith traditions in American public life.
127. | Guthrie Graves-Fitzsimmons; Maggie Siddiqi | Center for American Progress | April 13, 2022
Interviews BJC's Amanda Tyler about Christian nationalism, free exercise, government establishment, religious minorities, and competing definitions of liberty.
128. | The Washington Post | March 18, 2022
Reports a congressional briefing on Christian nationalism that included Baptist, secular, and other perspectives on religious freedom.
129. | Interfaith Alliance | Interfaith Alliance | 2022
Introduces an educational resource designed to help faith communities distinguish Christian nationalism from ordinary religious participation in public life.
130. | Ethnic and Racial Studies | 2018
Examines how Christian nationalism and nativist attitudes are associated with support for restrictions on Muslim-American civil liberties.
131. | Allyson F. Shortle; Ronald Keith Gaddie | Politics and Religion | June 19, 2015
Finds Christian-nationalist beliefs and biblical literalism associated with more restrictive attitudes toward Muslim worship and civil rights.
History, Founding, Civil Religion & National Identity
132. | Mark Tooley | Law & Liberty | August 31, 2026
Reviews competing interpretations of America's religious founding and the historical role of providential language in American political identity.
133. | Steven Waldman | The Christian Century | June 16, 2026
Uses early American religious persecution and debates over establishment to examine claims that government promotion of Christianity would protect religious freedom.
134. | Religion News Service | May 19, 2026
Summarizes a discussion among historians and religious-liberty experts about the founders, Christian influence, church-state separation, and contemporary Christian nationalism.
135. | America Staff | America | May 15, 2026
Reports debate surrounding the Rededicate 250 religious gathering and competing interpretations of public Christianity and Christian nationalism.
136. | Bob Smietana | Religion News Service | May 13, 2026
Reviews competing historical understandings of America as a Christian nation and their consequences for church-state relations and minority faiths.
137. | Andrew L. Seidel | Americans United for Separation of Church and State | May 1, 2026
Presents excerpts from a historical argument challenging claims that the United States was constitutionally founded as a Christian nation.
138. | Religion News Service / The Conversation | April 28, 2026
Places current debates about Christian national identity and religious minorities within the longer history of American religious freedom and discrimination.
139. | Amy E. Black; Douglas L. Koopman | Cambridge University Press | October 9, 2025
Examines competing visions of American national identity, including religious, civic, and pluralistic understandings of citizenship.
140. | Bruce Gourley | Americans United for Separation of Church and State | June 2, 2025
Presents a historical critique arguing that some white Christian political movements have supported restrictions on the liberty of religious and racial minorities.
141. | Bob Smietana | Religion News Service | October 30, 2024
Revisits colonial establishments and persecution of religious dissenters as historical context for contemporary Christian-nation proposals.
142. | Jeff Brumley | Baptist News Global | February 27, 2024
Reviews Amanda Tyler's account of how Christian-nation narratives developed after the American founding.
143. | Bettina Krause | Adventist Review | July 28, 2023
Examines how ordinary religious and patriotic practices can unintentionally blend into Christian-nationalist assumptions.
144. | The Washington Post | February 24, 2023
Reports on communities seeking a more explicitly Christian political culture and competing understandings of how much liberty nonconforming religious groups would retain.
145. | Naomi Haynes | Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | December 14, 2022
Examines covenantal forms of Christian nationalism and the use of biblical analogies in relationships between religion and national government.
146. | Deseret News | April 22, 2022
Explores beliefs that the Constitution was divinely inspired and how those views intersect with Christian nationalism and pluralistic religious freedom.
Denominational, Theological & Faith-Community Responses
147. | Presbyterian News Service | Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) | September 3, 2026
Examines how clergy address Christian nationalism from the pulpit while navigating political disagreement within congregations.
148. | Megan Fowler | Christianity Today | July 30, 2026
Reports how a conservative Presbyterian denomination studied and debated Christian nationalism and the proper limits of church involvement in national politics.
149. | Beth Waltemath | Presbyterian News Service | June 30, 2026
Reports Presbyterian General Assembly debate about Christian nationalism, American history, religious liberty, and the church's public witness.
150. | Liam Adams | Sojourners | June 26, 2026
Covers debate within the Presbyterian Church in America about Christian nationalism and competing theological conceptions of government and religious liberty.
151. | Craig L. Nessan | Currents in Theology and Mission | June 17, 2026
Presents a theological overview of Christian nationalism and discusses objections to combining Christian faith with national political identity.
152. | Russell Moore | Christianity Today | June 15, 2026
Discusses how pastors and congregations can respond when Christian nationalism becomes part of church conflict or political identity.
153. | Cindy Corell | Presbyterian News Service | June 11, 2026
Describes General Assembly proposals addressing Christian nationalism alongside immigration, national identity, and the Doctrine of Discovery.
154. | Presbyterian News Service | Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) | May 7, 2026
Reports a church discussion of Christian nationalism and how congregations can distinguish Christian faith from nationalist political ideology.
155. | United Church of Christ | United Church of Christ | April 12, 2026
Introduces a discussion of religious nationalism and authoritarianism in several countries, placing American Christian nationalism in comparative context.
156. | Presbyterian News Service | Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) | March 16, 2026
Examines Christian flags, national symbolism, and debates about the relationship between religious identity and patriotism.
157. | Mac Loftin | The Christian Century | December 2025
Offers a theological critique of nationalism that places national and ethnic identity above broader Christian identity.
158. | Daniel Holcomb | Baptist News Global | August 28, 2025
Describes a Baptist effort to understand how Christian nationalism affects churches, religious liberty, and political engagement.
159. | Presbyterian News Service | Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) | July 8, 2025
Describes a denominational resource intended to help congregations identify and respond to Christian nationalism.
160. | America Contributor | America | April 17, 2025
Presents a Catholic argument for religious participation in public life that does not require government establishment of Christianity.
161. | Mike Ferguson | Presbyterian News Service | April 4, 2025
Reports a Presbyterian discussion examining the origins, appeal, theology, and political implications of Christian nationalism.
162. | ELCA Advocacy | Evangelical Lutheran Church in America | March 25, 2025
Presents an ELCA response to Christian nationalism emphasizing pluralism, civic participation, and religious freedom.
163. | United Methodist Communications | United Methodist Church | 2025
Discusses Christian nationalism and authoritarian political tendencies from a United Methodist theological perspective.
164. | General Synod of the Anglican Church of Canada | Anglican Church of Canada | 2025
Records a church resolution opposing Christian nationalism and affirming religious pluralism and democratic institutions.
165. | John Jillions | Public Orthodoxy | October 29, 2024
Presents an Orthodox Christian argument that Christian nationalism can threaten freedom of conscience and authentic religious faith.
166. | William J. Barber II et al. | Sojourners | September/October 2024
Presents several Christian perspectives on opposing nationalism while retaining robust religious participation in public life.
167. | The Editors | Sojourners | September/October 2024
Introduces a collection examining Christian nationalism's relationship to Christianity, democracy, religious freedom, and civic participation.
168. | David Langston | United Church of Christ | July 16, 2024
Presents a United Church of Christ critique of white Christian nationalism and discusses its theological and civic implications.
169. | Presbyterian News Service | Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) | 2024
Reports regional Presbyterian discussions of Christian nationalism, racial justice, civic engagement, and the role of churches in public life.
170. | Baptist News Global | 2024
Reports debate among Southern Baptists over whether religious liberty should apply equally across faith traditions and political contexts.
171. | Adventist Review | Adventist Review | 2023
Discusses proposals for greater Christian political power from the perspective of a denomination historically committed to church-state separation.
172. | Adventist Review Staff | Adventist Review | 2023
Discusses religious liberty amid competing religious and secular political pressures and emphasizes freedom of conscience for all.
173. | North American Division Staff | Seventh-day Adventist Church | 2023
Examines Adventist religious-liberty advocacy and concerns about nationalism, political polarization, and government involvement with religion.
174. | Andrew Walker | Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission | February 18, 2022
Argues that protections for religious institutions should not automatically be characterized as Christian nationalism and distinguishes institutional religious freedom from establishing a Christian nation.
175. | Paul D. Miller | Christianity Today | 2021
Offers an evangelical Christian definition distinguishing Christian nationalism from political participation, patriotism, religious liberty advocacy, and Christian social engagement.
176. | Jonathan Davis | Baptist News Global | August 13, 2018
Presents a Baptist argument that government promotion of a dominant Christian identity can undermine liberty of conscience for Christians and non-Christians alike.
Political Movements, Leaders, Organizing & Contemporary Activism
177. | The Washington Post | The Washington Post | September 10, 2026
Profiles a member of Congress concerned about Christian nationalism and discusses contemporary disputes over religion, government, and constitutional rights.
178. | CNN Communications | CNN | February 17, 2026
Describes a documentary examining the growth of Christian nationalism and debates over the relationship between Christian faith and American government.
179. | Freedom From Religion Foundation | FFRF | January 6, 2026
Presents FFRF's analysis connecting Christian nationalism, January 6, church-state separation, and protection of nonreligious citizens.
180. | Amanpour and Company | PBS | December 19, 2025
Includes discussion of contemporary Christian nationalism, political organization, and disputes over democratic and religious institutions.
181. | Religion News Service | December 10, 2025
Profiles Doug Wilson's political theology, including arguments about Christian government, Protestant cultural influence, and religious liberty.
182. | The Atlantic | The Atlantic | July 2025
Profiles Christian musician and activist Sean Feucht and examines the combination of worship events, political activism, and Christian-nationalist themes.
183. | Terrorism and Political Violence | 2025
Studies how prayer and religious ritual can function within political mobilization and Christian-nationalist identity formation.
184. | NPR Staff | NPR | October 24, 2024
Examines Turning Point's religious organizing and the increasing overlap between evangelical political activism and Christian-nationalist rhetoric.
185. | ReligiousLiberty.TV | July 28, 2024
Examines Project 2025's religious-liberty provisions and discusses both criticism and more favorable interpretations of its approach.
186. | The Washington Post | November 8, 2023
Examines religious-right institutions and legal organizations in suburban Nashville and debates over Christian identity and religious liberty.
187. | Associated Press | AP News | October 2023
Examines Mike Johnson's religious and political background and debates over Christian conservative influence in government following his election as House speaker.
188. | Jack Jenkins | Religion News Service / The Washington Post | December 29, 2022
Reports disagreement over how prominently Christian nationalism should feature in explanations of January 6.
189. | Associated Press | PBS NewsHour | October 2022
Reports Michael Flynn's religious-political organizing and examines rhetoric connecting Christianity, national identity, and political activism.
190. | Anti-Defamation League Staff | Anti-Defamation League | August 19, 2022
Profiles Gab founder Andrew Torba and discusses his public promotion of explicitly Christian nationalist political ideas.
191. | Multiple authors | BJC / Freedom From Religion Foundation | February 9, 2022
Examines Christian symbols, organizations, leaders, and rhetoric associated with January 6 and discusses implications for religious freedom and democracy.
192. | Rob Boston; Katherine Stewart | Americans United / Church & State | April 30, 2020
Discusses religious nationalism, Christian political power, public education, and competing meanings of the term religious liberty.
International & Comparative Perspectives
193. | Religion News Service | January 28, 2026
Explores Christian nationalism comparatively and considers its implications for religious freedom and democratic pluralism.
194. | Ida Olenius | Journal of Church and State | July 1, 2025
Examines different forms of national Christianity in Nordic countries and their implications for church-state relationships and religious pluralism.
195. | University of Notre Dame | Center for Social Concerns | March 20–22, 2025
Collects material from an interdisciplinary conference examining religious nationalism through theology, political science, sociology, history, and Catholic social thought.
196. | Berkley Center Contributor | Georgetown University Berkley Center | 2025
Examines religion, nationalism, culture, and statecraft and considers different ways religion can operate within democratic political systems.
197. | Politics and Religion | 2025
Broadens the comparative perspective by testing links between Christian nationalism, democracy, and tolerance outside the United States.
198. | Adventist Review Staff | Adventist Review | 2024
Reports an international religious-liberty summit addressing nationalism, government restrictions, persecution, and church-state relations.
199. | Robert J. Joustra | Georgetown University Berkley Center | 2021
Examines changing international and domestic understandings of freedom of religion or belief and debates about religious pluralism.
