Christian Nationalism and American Democracy
Christian Nationalism and American Democracy
Christian nationalism has become an important subject in research on American religion, politics, national identity, and democratic government. Although definitions differ, the term is generally used by researchers to describe a cultural or political framework that closely connects Christianity with American national identity and, in stronger forms, supports giving Christianity a privileged position in government, law, public institutions, or definitions of legitimate citizenship.
Research on Christian nationalism does not treat all Christian political participation as Christian nationalism. Scholars, religious organizations, journalists, and critics of the concept have repeatedly debated where ordinary religious involvement in politics ends and Christian nationalism begins. Some researchers use multi-question survey scales to distinguish varying levels of support, while critics argue that the term can sometimes be applied too broadly or can blur distinctions among conservative Christianity, nationalism, authoritarianism, and conventional religious political participation.
The relationship between Christian nationalism and American democracy therefore involves several related questions: how Christian nationalism is defined, how widespread it is, how it relates to voting and political participation, whether it is associated with authoritarian or anti-democratic attitudes, how it affects religious and racial pluralism, and how supporters and opponents understand the proper relationship between Christianity and government.
Defining Christian Nationalism
One influential approach describes Christian nationalism as a cultural framework joining Christian identity with ideas about American national belonging. Andrew Whitehead and Samuel Perry's Taking America Back for God analyzes Christian nationalism through themes of political power, social boundaries, hierarchy, race, gender, immigration, guns, and national identity.
Philip Gorski and Samuel Perry's The Flag and the Cross examines what the authors call white Christian nationalism and places it within a longer historical tradition involving Protestant identity, racial hierarchy, national destiny, political authority, and exclusion from full membership in the national community.
Survey organizations have developed related ways of measuring the phenomenon. The Public Religion Research Institute has classified respondents into categories such as Adherents, Sympathizers, Skeptics, and Rejecters based on responses to multiple questions concerning Christianity and American government and identity.
Pew Research Center has approached the subject by asking more specific questions about whether the United States should be a Christian nation, whether Christianity should receive government support, whether the Bible should influence legislation, and how respondents understand the phrase "Christian nationalism."
These approaches show why Christian nationalism is a contested concept. People may favor some degree of Christian cultural influence while opposing an officially Christian government. Others may support religious participation in politics while rejecting unequal citizenship or government preference for Christianity.
Christian Nationalism and Democratic Government
A substantial portion of the research literature examines whether Christian-nationalist beliefs are associated with attitudes toward democratic institutions.
Studies cited in the source material have examined support for voting rights, political representation, executive authority, constitutional limits, pluralism, and democratic participation. Some findings report associations between stronger Christian-nationalist beliefs and greater willingness to accept political leaders violating democratic norms during perceived national emergencies.
Research has also examined relationships between Christian nationalism and authoritarian attitudes. PRRI studies have reported substantial overlap between Christian-nationalist identification and measures of authoritarianism, although scholars continue to debate whether Christian nationalism should be treated as distinct from authoritarianism or whether the concepts partially overlap.
Jesse Smith and other critics of parts of the research literature have cautioned against defining Christian nationalism primarily through negative political outcomes. Such critiques argue that researchers should distinguish carefully among nationalism, conservative religious belief, authoritarianism, partisan identity, and opposition to liberal political ideas.
The debate therefore concerns both empirical findings and conceptual interpretation. Research frequently identifies correlations between Christian nationalism and particular political attitudes, but scholars disagree about how these relationships should be interpreted and how broadly the label should be applied.
Voting, Elections, and Political Participation
Voting and election legitimacy are recurring themes in research on Christian nationalism.
Studies by Samuel Perry, Andrew Whitehead, Joshua Grubbs, and others have reported associations between Christian-nationalist beliefs and support for additional voting restrictions, beliefs that voting may be too easy, and concerns about voter fraud.
Other studies have examined electoral behavior. Research has reported associations between Christian-nationalist attitudes and support for Donald Trump in the 2016 and 2024 presidential elections. State-level analyses have also explored whether areas with greater measured support for Christian nationalism corresponded with higher Trump vote shares.
These findings describe statistical relationships rather than demonstrating that Christian nationalism alone determines voting behavior. Political party identification, ideology, religion, race, education, region, economic attitudes, and many other factors also shape electoral choices.
Research following the 2024 election has continued to examine how Christian-nationalist identity relates to confidence in democracy, perceptions of election legitimacy, political leadership, and presidential voting.
January 6 and Political Violence
The January 6, 2021 attack on the United States Capitol became a major focus of Christian-nationalism research because Christian symbols, prayers, religious language, and nationalist themes were visibly present among some participants.
Reports produced by the Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty and other organizations documented Christian-nationalist rhetoric, symbols, organizations, and individuals associated with events surrounding January 6.
Academic studies have examined whether Christian nationalism, perceived victimhood, racial identity, conspiracy beliefs, and other factors were associated with support for the attack or acceptance of political violence.
Research has also considered whether gun ownership and strong gun-owner identity interact with Christian-nationalist beliefs in shaping attitudes toward political violence.
At the same time, researchers have found evidence that the association of Christianity with January 6 may have produced a backlash among some Americans. Panel research by David Campbell and Geoffrey Layman found that respondents who connected January 6 with Christian nationalism sometimes became less favorable toward Donald Trump and the Republican Party.
The evidence therefore suggests that highly visible Christian-nationalist political activity can mobilize some people while alienating others.
Authoritarianism and Political Power
Christian nationalism is frequently studied alongside authoritarianism because both can involve questions about hierarchy, political order, obedience, national identity, and the legitimacy of strong leadership.
PRRI research has examined relationships among Christian nationalism, right-wing authoritarianism, political violence, immigration attitudes, gender hierarchy, and willingness to grant greater power to political leaders.
Studies of political emergencies have found that some respondents with stronger Christian-nationalist beliefs are more willing to tolerate leaders violating democratic norms when national survival or social order is perceived to be threatened.
Researchers have also examined punitive attitudes. Earlier work by Joshua Davis found associations between Christian nationalism and support for harsher criminal punishment and stronger governmental social control.
Critics of this research caution that Christian nationalism and authoritarianism should not automatically be treated as identical. They argue that scholars must determine whether Christian nationalism independently explains political attitudes or whether some findings primarily reflect broader ideological, partisan, or authoritarian orientations.
Religious Pluralism and Minority Rights
Religious pluralism is another central issue.
American democracy formally protects equal citizenship and religious liberty across different faith traditions and for people without religious affiliation. Christian nationalism raises questions about whether Christianity should receive distinctive cultural, legal, or political status.
Research has examined whether Christian-nationalist attitudes are associated with tolerance toward religious minorities, antisemitism, anti-Muslim attitudes, and perceptions that Christians are threatened or losing political influence.
Some studies suggest that perceived threats to Christianity can reduce willingness to extend political tolerance or civil liberties to groups viewed as opponents.
Nilay Saiya and Stuti Manchanda have also examined whether political empowerment of Christian-nationalist ideas corresponds with violence against religious minorities at the state level.
The literature simultaneously documents substantial religious opposition to Christian nationalism. Christian leaders, congregations, interfaith organizations, and religious-liberty groups have argued that religious freedom is better protected by preventing government preference for any single religion.
Church-State Separation
Debates surrounding Christian nationalism often overlap with disagreements about the proper relationship between church and state.
Pew Research Center surveys have examined public attitudes toward an officially Christian government, biblical influence on legislation, church political endorsements, government promotion of Christian values, and the constitutional separation of religion and government.
Americans do not divide neatly into two groups of Christian nationalists and strict secularists. Survey findings show multiple combinations of attitudes. A person may favor Christian moral influence in public life while opposing government establishment of Christianity, or may support religious political participation while insisting on equal constitutional rights for all religions.
This complexity is one reason researchers often use multi-question scales rather than treating a single political or theological belief as sufficient evidence of Christian nationalism.
Race and National Identity
Race has played an important role in much of the scholarship on American Christian nationalism.
Some researchers use the term "white Christian nationalism" to emphasize historical relationships among Protestant identity, racial hierarchy, national belonging, immigration, and political power. Gorski and Perry trace these ideas through historical narratives involving colonialism, expansion, racial exclusion, and competing definitions of American citizenship.
Contemporary research has examined relationships between Christian nationalism and attitudes involving immigration, demographic change, racial identity, and perceptions about who properly belongs within the American nation.
At the same time, Christian-nationalist attitudes are not limited exclusively to white Americans. Research by Allyson Shortle, Michael Fisher, and others has explored how Christian-nationalist rhetoric operates across racial groups and how racial identity may modify political responses to nationalist messages.
These studies complicate attempts to treat Christian nationalism as a completely uniform political identity.
Resistance to Christian Nationalism
Research increasingly examines not only supporters of Christian nationalism but also people and organizations that actively reject it.
PRRI's research on Christian-nationalism Rejecters and Skeptics has examined the religious, political, racial, and geographic characteristics of Americans who resist Christian-nationalist ideas.
The University of Connecticut's Meanings of Democracy Lab has studied what it calls "pluralist resistance" to Christian nationalism. This includes religious organizations, secular activists, civic groups, interfaith networks, legal organizations, and local community coalitions.
Examples include Christians Against Christian Nationalism, the Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty, Interfaith Alliance, and faith-based organizations advocating multiracial and multireligious democracy.
Local reporting has also documented alliances between religious and secular residents opposing Christian-nationalist influence in community institutions such as school boards, libraries, and local government.
Christian Critiques of Christian Nationalism
Opposition to Christian nationalism also comes from within Christianity.
Christian theologians, pastors, denominational organizations, and evangelical writers have argued that Christianity should not depend upon governmental privilege or political domination.
Some distinguish Christian nationalism from what they consider legitimate Christian political participation within a constitutional democracy. Paul D. Miller, for example, has argued for a form of Christian civic engagement that accepts religious pluralism and equal citizenship.
Russell Moore, Timothy Keller, and other Christian writers have similarly warned against fusing Christianity too closely with national political identity.
Other Christian writers have cautioned against using the Christian-nationalism label so broadly that it encompasses almost every conservative Christian political position. Christianity Today has published arguments emphasizing the importance of distinguishing nationalism, political theology, conservatism, illiberalism, patriotism, and ordinary religious political participation.
These debates demonstrate that Christian nationalism is not simply a conflict between religious and secular Americans. Significant disagreement exists within Christian communities themselves.
Criticism of Christian-Nationalism Research
The study of Christian nationalism has generated methodological and conceptual criticism.
Some scholars argue that survey measures may combine several different attitudes into a single category. Critics question whether support for statements concerning America's Christian heritage, public religious symbols, or Christian political influence necessarily indicates a coherent nationalist ideology.
Jesse Smith has compared some Christian-nationalism research with earlier scholarship on authoritarian personality types and has warned against circular reasoning in which a group is defined through undesirable political characteristics and then described as politically dangerous because it possesses those same characteristics.
Comparative studies add another complication. Research involving Finland, Africa, and international religious nationalism suggests that the relationship among religion, nationalism, democracy, and authoritarianism may differ across countries and political systems.
These criticisms have contributed to more detailed measurement and greater emphasis on distinguishing between different dimensions of Christian nationalism.
International Comparisons
Although American Christian nationalism has received extensive attention, religious nationalism is a global phenomenon.
Pew Research Center has compared religious nationalism across countries, examining whether citizens believe national identity should be connected with the country's dominant religious tradition.
Comparative research suggests that religious nationalism does not produce identical political consequences everywhere. Political institutions, religious traditions, historical experience, ethnic divisions, and the strength of democratic norms can shape its effects.
Studies of Christian nationalism in African countries and Finland have questioned whether concepts developed in the United States can be transferred directly to other societies.
International comparisons therefore reinforce the importance of distinguishing between religious nationalism as a broad category and the particular historical form that Christian nationalism has taken in the United States.
Public Opinion and Continuing Debate
Public familiarity with the phrase "Christian nationalism" has increased substantially.
Pew surveys show that Americans hold differing opinions about Christianity's role in government and about the Christian-nationalism label itself. PRRI's state-level surveys similarly find large geographic, partisan, religious, and demographic differences.
At the same time, the concept remains politically and academically contested. Some researchers describe Christian nationalism as a significant challenge to pluralistic democracy because of its associations with authoritarianism, political violence, exclusionary national identity, and resistance to democratic norms.
Others argue that public discussion sometimes treats Christian nationalism too broadly, risks confusing it with conservative Christianity, and may underestimate the compatibility of religious political engagement with democratic institutions.
The strongest interpretation of the available research therefore requires attention to both the empirical associations documented by researchers and the continuing debate about definition, measurement, causation, and interpretation.
Conclusion
Christian nationalism occupies an important and contested place in contemporary American political life. Research consistently connects the subject with broader questions about national identity, religion, voting, executive power, racial hierarchy, political violence, church-state relations, and religious pluralism.
A large body of survey and academic research reports associations between stronger Christian-nationalist beliefs and attitudes involving authoritarian leadership, voting restrictions, election distrust, political violence, religious hierarchy, and resistance to some forms of pluralism. Researchers have also documented relationships between Christian-nationalist identification and presidential voting behavior.
These findings do not mean that all Christians, religious conservatives, Republicans, patriotic Americans, or people who favor religious participation in politics are Christian nationalists. The literature itself repeatedly distinguishes Christian nationalism from Christianity, patriotism, conventional religious political involvement, and other forms of conservatism.
The concept also remains debated within academic and religious communities. Critics question some measurement techniques and caution against definitions that automatically equate Christian political conservatism with authoritarianism or anti-democratic behavior.
At the same time, opposition to Christian nationalism has become an important political and religious phenomenon of its own. Christian churches, interfaith organizations, secular groups, scholars, and civic organizations have developed movements emphasizing religious liberty, equal citizenship, multiracial democracy, and constitutional pluralism.
The broader debate concerns a fundamental question about American democracy: how a country with deep Christian historical and cultural influences can accommodate strong religious convictions while preserving equal political membership for citizens of every religion and for those with no religious affiliation.
Christian Nationalism and American Democracy — Categorized, Deduplicated, Reverse-Sorted Sources
Public Opinion, State Mapping, and American Identity
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute / Meanings of Democracy Lab | September 24, 2026
National and state-level analysis of Americans who resist Christian-nationalist ideas, including differences by religion, political party, race, demographic characteristics, and geography.
| Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | May 14, 2026
Reports trends in public opinion toward Christian nationalism, finding increasing familiarity with the term and documenting both favorable and unfavorable responses among U.S. adults.
[Where Christian Nationalism Is Most Dominant in U.S. States | Axios | Axios | February 18, 2026]
Summarizes PRRI’s 2025 state-level data and relationships among Christian nationalism, party control, immigration attitudes, political leadership, and executive authority.
[Mapping Christian Nationalism Across the 50 States: Insights from PRRI’s 2025 American Values Atlas | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 17, 2026]
Updates national and state-level measurements of Christian nationalism and analyzes its relationships with partisan affiliation, religious identity, political leadership, immigration, and executive power.
| Nilay Saiya and Stuti Manchanda | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | September 2, 2024
Uses state-level longitudinal evidence to examine whether political expressions of Christian nationalism correspond with violence directed at religious minorities.
[Views of the U.S. as a Christian Nation and Opinions About Christian Nationalism | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022]
Examines how Americans understand the concepts of a Christian nation and Christian nationalism and documents large differences by religion, age, and political affiliation.
[In Their Own Words: How Americans Describe Christian Nationalism | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022]
Presents respondents’ descriptions of Christian nationalism, illustrating competing understandings ranging from Christian-influenced civic values to institutional religious dominance.
Democracy, Authoritarianism, and Political Power
| Religion News Service | FaithDaily | September 5, 2026
Discusses Jones’s argument that contemporary Christian nationalism should be understood within the broader history of religion, authoritarianism, race, and democratic backsliding.
[Inside the Authoritarian-Christian Nationalism Link: Exploring Key Drivers | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | November 7, 2025]
Uses PRRI survey data to analyze which factors predict both Christian-nationalist identification and right-wing authoritarian attitudes.
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | September 2, 2025
Introduces scholars and religious leaders working on Christian nationalism, multiracial democracy, religious pluralism, authoritarianism, and democratic culture.
[White Christian Nationalism: Adult Education and Threats to Democracy | Ralf St. Clair | New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education | June 5, 2025]
Examines white Christian nationalism as an authoritarian challenge and discusses how civic and adult education might strengthen democratic relationships.
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | 2025
Examines relationships among religion, race, authoritarianism, Christian nationalism, church-state separation, voter registration, and commitment to democratic principles.
[Christian Nationalism and Support for Leaders Violating Democratic Norms During National Emergencies | Samuel L. Perry and Joshua B. Grubbs | Politics and Religion | September 19, 2024]
Tests whether Christian-nationalist beliefs predict willingness to tolerate elected leaders violating democratic norms during perceived national emergencies.
[Dreams of American Christendom: White Evangelicals’ Political Pursuit of a Christian Order without Christ | Jessica Wai-Fong Wong | Religions | August 29, 2024]
Explores theological and historical factors that can connect white evangelical political activism with aspirations for Christian cultural and governmental dominance.
[Christian Nationalism and Democracy: Attitudes Toward Democratic Participation and Representation | Mackenzie Dobson and Tyler Leigh | Rooney Center for the Study of American Democracy, University of Notre Dame | December 13, 2024]
Uses Notre Dame’s Health of Democracy Survey to examine Christian-nationalist attitudes toward voting rights, democratic participation, and representative government.
[Christian Nationalism’s Impact on Democracy | Philip Gorski, Walter Kim, Esau McCaulley, Micah Schwartzman, and Amanda Tyler | Karsh Institute of Democracy, University of Virginia | October 20, 2023]
Brings together scholars, constitutional experts, and Christian leaders to discuss Christian nationalism, religious freedom, pluralism, and democratic governance.
[The Flag and the Cross: White Christian Nationalism and the Threat to Democracy | Philip Gorski | UC Berkeley Social Science Matrix | April 17, 2023]
Discusses the historical and sociological arguments linking white Christian nationalism to hierarchy, authoritarian politics, and challenges to liberal democracy.
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute / Brookings Institution | February 8, 2023
A major national survey of more than 6,000 Americans examining Christian nationalism, pluralism, authoritarianism, racial attitudes, political violence, religious identity, and attitudes toward American democracy.
[Christian Nationalism’s Threat to Global Democracy | Nilay Saiya | The Review of Faith & International Affairs | 2023]
Places American Christian nationalism within a comparative international context and examines relationships among religious nationalism, authoritarianism, and democratic decline.
[Power in the Blood: How White Christian Nationalism Threatens Democracy | Samuel L. Perry | Arizona State University Center for the Study of Religion and Conflict | October 13, 2022]
Presents survey and experimental research concerning Christian nationalism, authoritarian movements, democratic institutions, and January 6.
[Three Threats Christian Nationalism Poses to the United States | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | TIME | September 20, 2022]
Summarizes research concerning Christian nationalism, voting access, minority rights, political violence, and democratic legitimacy.
[The Growing Anti-Democratic Threat of Christian Nationalism in the U.S. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | TIME | June 1, 2021]
Relates Christian-nationalist attitudes to voting restrictions, January 6, minority political participation, and attitudes toward democratic institutions.
[Religious Values in Liberal Democracy | Emily R. Gill | Religions | December 19, 2020]
Argues that religious commitments can either support or undermine liberal democracy depending on how political authority, pluralism, and competing rights are understood.
[Enforcing Christian Nationalism: Examining the Link Between Group Identity and Punitive Attitudes in the United States | Joshua Davis | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | June 22, 2018]
Finds Christian nationalism associated with greater support for punitive government policies, harsh criminal punishment, and stronger social control.
Elections, Voting, January 6, and Political Violence
[Congressman Jared Huffman: The Fight to Save Democracy From Christian Nationalism | Religion News Service | FaithDaily | September 12, 2026]
Discusses congressional religious networks, authoritarian politics, church-state separation, and the religious dimensions of January 6.
| David Smith | The Guardian | August 26, 2026
Interview with Rep. Jared Huffman about his book No Prophets, January 6, Christian nationalism, science, education, church-state relations, and democratic institutions.
[The Only Humanist in Congress on Christian Nationalism, Privilege and Protecting Democracy | Katherine Stewart | Religion News Service | August 18, 2026]
Interviews Rep. Jared Huffman about church-state separation, January 6, religious privilege, Christian nationalism, and pluralistic democracy.
| David E. Campbell and Geoffrey C. Layman | Politics and Religion | July 13, 2026
Examines whether Christian-nationalist imagery and rhetoric surrounding January 6 produced religious and partisan backlash. Using panel data, the authors find that respondents who associated January 6 with Christian nationalism became less favorable toward Donald Trump and Republicans, with some Republicans changing their partisan identification.
[An Army for God: Gun Ownership, Christian Nationalism, and Support for Political Violence | Donald Haider-Markel, Brooklyn Walker, and Abigail Vegter | Social Science Quarterly | April 2, 2026]
Reports that Christian nationalism, gun ownership, and strong gun-owner identity can interact in predicting greater acceptance of political violence.
[FFRF Emphasizes Christian Nationalism’s Threat to Democracy on Insurrection Anniversary | Freedom From Religion Foundation | FFRF | January 6, 2026]
Revisits the January 6 evidence and argues that Christian nationalism remains relevant to understanding religiously framed election denial and anti-democratic political movements.
| Joel Day | Terrorism and Political Violence | September 11, 2025
Examines Christian nationalism as a social practice expressed through prayer, political ritual, public gatherings, and relationships between religious symbolism and political violence.
| Allyson Shortle and Michael R. Fisher Jr. | Public Religion Research Institute | August 12, 2025
Analyzes how Christian-nationalist rhetoric operates across racial groups and how Christian-nationalist identification corresponded with presidential voting behavior in 2024.
| Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Nations and Nationalism | June 3, 2025
Examines whether state-level Christian-nationalism estimates correlate with Trump’s 2024 vote share after controlling for economic, religious, political, and demographic variables.
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 4, 2025
Summarizes nationwide survey findings concerning Christian nationalism, partisanship, political violence, church attendance, media habits, and the 2024 election.
| Adam Gabbatt | The Guardian | January 19, 2025
Interview and book discussion with Katherine Stewart about networks of donors, activists, religious leaders, and political organizations associated with Christian nationalism and opposition to pluralistic democracy.
[Trump’s Christian Nationalist Vision for America | Robert P. Jones | TIME | September 2024]
Analyzes Christian nationalism in relation to race, immigration, hierarchy, political violence, pluralism, and Donald Trump’s political coalition.
[How Christians Can Counter Christian Nationalism | William J. Barber II and others | Sojourners | September/October 2024]
Collects perspectives from pastors, scholars, and activists on Christian nationalism, election integrity, civil rights, white supremacy, political violence, and democracy.
| Adrian Horton | The Guardian | April 27, 2024
Reviews the documentary Bad Faith, which traces Christian-right political organizing from the 1970s through January 6 and examines claims that portions of the movement seek greater religious control over government.
| Nathan Empsall | Religion News Service | March 27, 2024
Commentary from a Christian perspective arguing that Christian nationalist organizing, election conspiracy narratives, and political violence warrant greater attention from churches and democratic institutions.
[How We Can Confront the Myths of January 6 and Intensifying Christian Nationalism | Jared Stacy and Andrew L. Whitehead | TIME | January 2024]
Discusses research connecting Christian nationalism with political violence, rule-breaking by leaders, election conspiracy beliefs, and interpretations of January 6.
| Ruth Braunstein and Meanings of Democracy Lab | University of Connecticut | 2023–2026
Research project studying organizations, networks, and citizens mobilizing in defense of religious pluralism and democratic inclusion in response to Christian nationalism.
[Who Are the Christian Nationalists? A Taxonomy for the Post-Jan. 6 World | Bob Smietana | Religion News Service | January 6, 2023]
Distinguishes different currents within the Christian-nationalist movement and examines activists, religious leaders, political figures, and institutional networks.
[Faith Leaders Ask Why Jan. 6 Report Left Out Christian Nationalism | Jack Jenkins | The Washington Post | December 29, 2022]
Examines disagreement over how much attention the congressional January 6 report gave to religious nationalism and Christian symbolism surrounding the attack.
[Why a Group of Christians Is Fighting the Growing Threat of Christian Nationalism | Vera Bergengruen | TIME | December 30, 2022]
Profiles Christian opposition to Christian nationalism and explores religious freedom, January 6, political violence, and church-state separation.
[Why Christian Nationalists Want You to Distrust Elections | Samuel L. Perry | Sojourners | November 2022]
Examines the connection among Christian nationalism, voter-fraud narratives, distrust of elections, political participation, and democratic legitimacy.
[Michael Flynn’s Holy War | Richard Rowley and colleagues | FRONTLINE / PBS | October 2022]
Investigates the ReAwaken America movement, election conspiracies, Christian nationalist rhetoric, political mobilization, and threats to democratic institutions.
[Michael Flynn’s ReAwaken Roadshow Recruits an “Army of God” | Michelle R. Smith | FRONTLINE / Associated Press | September 2022]
Reports on the ReAwaken America Tour and its fusion of Christian identity, conspiracy narratives, electoral politics, and national restoration rhetoric.
[Americans Are Growing More Accepting of Christian Nationalism | Allyson F. Shortle, Eric L. McDaniel, and Irfan Nooruddin | The Washington Post | September 1, 2022]
Uses public-opinion research to examine American religious exceptionalism, Christian nationalism, and attitudes toward democratic and authoritarian government.
[Christian Nationalism Is Being Used to Subvert Democracy | Jonathan Wilson-Hartgrove | TIME | July 28, 2022]
Argues that long-standing religious-right networks have used Christian-nationalist narratives to mobilize political power and challenge pluralistic democratic government.
[Researchers Warn That Christian Nationalists Are Becoming More Radical and Are Targeting Voting | Michelle Boorstein | The Washington Post | March 18, 2022]
Reports on congressional discussion of scholarship connecting Christian nationalism with January 6, voting restrictions, and democratic participation.
| Religion News Service | Presbyterian Outlook | February 23, 2022
Historical overview tracing changes from the New Christian Right and Christian Coalition to twenty-first-century Christian nationalism.
[Christian Nationalism and the January 6, 2021, Insurrection | Amanda Tyler, Andrew Seidel, Samuel Perry, Katherine Stewart, Jemar Tisby, Andrew Whitehead, and others | BJC / Freedom From Religion Foundation | February 9, 2022]
Provides a detailed account of Christian-nationalist rhetoric, organizations, symbols, events, and actors surrounding the attempt to overturn the 2020 election.
[Report on Christian Nationalism and the January 6 Insurrection | Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty | BJC | February 9, 2022]
Summarizes evidence concerning the role Christian nationalism played in mobilizing, legitimizing, and interpreting the Capitol attack.
[Christian Nationalism and the January 6 Attack on the Capitol | Christians Against Christian Nationalism | BJC coalition | 2022]
Collects the January 6 report, educational resources, congressional testimony, and religious responses to Christian nationalism.
[Christian Nationalism and Political Violence: Victimhood, Racial Identity, Conspiracy, and Support for the Capitol Attacks | Miles T. Armaly, David T. Buckley, and Adam M. Enders | Political Behavior | January 4, 2022]
Examines how Christian nationalism interacts with perceived victimhood, racial identity, and conspiracy beliefs in predicting support for the January 6 Capitol attack.
[More Christian Nationalist Violence Is Likely After Jan. 6 | Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | TIME | January 4, 2022]
Examines survey evidence suggesting that strong Christian-nationalist identification can interact with narratives of persecution and support for political violence.
[“I Don’t Want Everybody to Vote”: Christian Nationalism and Restricting Voter Access in the United States | Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead, and Joshua B. Grubbs | Sociological Forum | January 3, 2022]
Finds associations between Christian nationalism and beliefs that voting is too easy, voter fraud is widespread, and some citizens should face additional qualifications for voting.
[Christian Nationalism Has Deep Roots in America, Faith Leaders Say | Religion News Service | The Washington Post | January 6, 2022]
Discusses historical precedents for Christian nationalism and religious responses promoting pluralism, racial justice, and democratic citizenship.
| Arwa Mahdawi | The Guardian | December 11, 2021
Opinion article discussing radical Christian-nationalist political organizing and concerns about efforts to reshape American government around a particular conception of Christianity.
[Make America Christian Again: Christian Nationalism and Voting for Donald Trump in the 2016 Presidential Election | Andrew L. Whitehead, Samuel L. Perry, and Joseph O. Baker | Sociology of Religion | January 25, 2018]
Finds Christian-nationalist ideology independently associated with voting for Donald Trump in 2016 after accounting for numerous political, racial, religious, and economic factors.
Religious Pluralism, Church-State Separation, and Resistance
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | September 24, 2026
Examines Americans classified as Christian-nationalism Rejecters or Skeptics and reports a relationship between rejection of Christian nationalism and stronger identification with democratic principles.
[Christian Nationalists’ Professed Support for Religious Pluralism Is Often Drowned Out by Perceptions That Christians Are Under Threat | University of Tennessee Researchers | Religion News Service / The Conversation research summary | August 21, 2026]
Explains research showing that perceived threats to Christianity can reduce political tolerance even among respondents who express general support for religious pluralism.
[The Weakness of Anti-Christian Nationalism: When Religiously Inclusive Orientations Can’t Increase Tolerance | Paul A. Djupe and colleagues | Politics and Religion | 2026]
Investigates Christian nationalism, perceived threats to Christians, political tolerance, religious inclusiveness, and willingness to extend civil liberties to disliked groups.
[The Summer of Taking Christian Nationalism Seriously | Megan Fowler | Christianity Today | July 30, 2026]
Reports on Protestant denominations establishing committees and institutional processes to study Christian nationalism and formulate religious responses.
[Not Everything Is Christian Nationalism | Chris Butler | Christianity Today | May 5, 2026]
Warns against applying the Christian-nationalist label too broadly to conservative Christian political positions and calls for clearer distinctions among beliefs and movements.
| Chip Rotolo and Gregory A. Smith | Pew Research Center | May 14, 2026
Examines contemporary attitudes toward religion in government, church-state relations, Christian nationalism, and the appropriate boundaries of religious political influence.
| Religion News Service | Religion News Service | 2026
RNS maintains extensive reporting and commentary on Christian nationalism, democratic institutions, religious liberty, January 6, and church-state relations.
| PRRI | Public Religion Research Institute | 2026
Collection of PRRI research and commentary appearing in or associated with Religion News Service, including analysis of Christian nationalism and American political identity.
| Religion News Service | Religion News Service | 2025
Annual report highlighting RNS investigations and reporting on Christian nationalism, political extremism, democracy, charismatic political theology, and religious influence in government.
| Adam Russell Taylor | Sojourners | September/October 2024
Argues that Christian nationalism poses democratic dangers while emphasizing persuasion, religious engagement, and coalition-building rather than political demonization.
[Christian Nationalism and Violence Against Religious Minorities in the United States: A Quantitative Analysis | Nilay Saiya and Stuti Manchanda | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | September 2, 2024]
Uses state-level longitudinal evidence to examine whether political expressions of Christian nationalism correspond with violence directed at religious minorities.
| Chip Rotolo, Gregory A. Smith, and Jonathan Evans | Pew Research Center | March 15, 2024
Examines attitudes toward Christianity in government, Bible-based legislation, establishment of Christianity, separation of church and state, and familiarity with Christian nationalism.
| Ruth Braunstein | Meanings of Democracy Lab, University of Connecticut | September 1, 2023
Discusses the development of what Braunstein calls a “pluralist resistance” composed of Americans and organizations mobilizing against Christian-nationalist political ideas.
[Why Christian Nationalism Makes American Christians Less Christlike | Caleb Campbell | Religion News Service | August 18, 2023]
Presents a theological argument that seeking political dominance can conflict with democratic compromise, religious pluralism, and Christian teachings concerning service and power.
| Jack Jenkins | Religion News Service / Salt Lake Tribune | March 15, 2023
Reports on religious and secular activists in northern Idaho organizing against Christian nationalism amid conflicts involving libraries, education, and local government.
[How White Christian Nationalism Threatens Democracy | Samuel L. Perry, Amanda Tyler, Michael Curry, and Jim Wallis | Georgetown Center on Faith and Justice | October 26, 2022]
Examines religious nationalism from sociological, theological, constitutional, and civil-rights perspectives.
[Paul Raushenbush: Christian Nationalism Is a Threat to the American Way of Life | Religion News Service | Religion News Service | July 22, 2022]
Discusses the relationship among Christian nationalism, voting rights, religious diversity, church-state separation, and democratic citizenship.
[Christian Nationalism Is the “Single Biggest Threat” to America’s Religious Freedom | Guthrie Graves-Fitzsimmons and Maggie Siddiqi interviewing Amanda Tyler | Center for American Progress | April 13, 2022]
Discusses religious freedom, government-sponsored religion, January 6, church-state separation, minority rights, and Christian nationalism.
[Christians Have a Role to Play in Defending U.S. Democracy | Center for American Progress | Center for American Progress | 2022]
Discusses how Christian political participation can support democratic inclusion rather than religious nationalism or exclusionary citizenship.
[The Pro-Democracy Faith Movement | Center for American Progress | Center for American Progress | 2021]
Examines religious organizations involved in protecting democratic participation and contrasts inclusive faith-based civic engagement with Christian nationalism.
[Statement of Principles: Christians Against Christian Nationalism | Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty | Christians Against Christian Nationalism | 2019–present]
Defines Christian nationalism as a fusion of Christian and American identities and presents a religiously grounded defense of pluralistic constitutional democracy.
[Democracy Not Theocracy | Interfaith Alliance | Interfaith Alliance | 2020s]
Presents the organization’s argument for religious pluralism, church-state separation, equal citizenship, and opposition to religious authoritarianism.
Foundational Scholarship and Major Books
[The Flag and the Cross: White Christian Nationalism and the Threat to American Democracy | Philip S. Gorski and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | April 21, 2022]
Connects contemporary white Christian nationalism to a longer historical tradition involving race, national identity, hierarchy, political power, and democratic exclusion.
[Introduction: Eruption | Philip S. Gorski and Samuel L. Perry | The Flag and the Cross, Oxford University Press | April 21, 2022]
Uses January 6 as an entry point for defining white Christian nationalism and distinguishing it from Christianity, patriotism, and evangelicalism.
[“This Is Our Nation, Not Theirs” | Philip S. Gorski and Samuel L. Perry | The Flag and the Cross, Oxford University Press | April 21, 2022]
Examines survey evidence concerning the demographics, political beliefs, religious identities, and racial attitudes associated with white Christian nationalism.
[The Spirit of 1690 | Philip S. Gorski and Samuel L. Perry | The Flag and the Cross, Oxford University Press | April 21, 2022]
Traces historical narratives connecting Protestant identity, conquest, racial hierarchy, and national destiny to later forms of American Christian nationalism.
[Freedom, Violence, Order | Philip S. Gorski and Samuel L. Perry | The Flag and the Cross, Oxford University Press | April 21, 2022]
Connects white Christian nationalism with ideas about liberty, social hierarchy, coercive order, political violence, and January 6.
[Avoiding “The Big One” | Philip S. Gorski and Samuel L. Perry | The Flag and the Cross, Oxford University Press | April 21, 2022]
Examines tensions between white Christian nationalism and multiracial democracy, including voting rights, electoral institutions, and minority political power.
[Taking America Back for God — Review | Christopher R. H. Garneau | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | June 2021]
Academic review assessing Whitehead and Perry’s contribution to the sociological study of religion, nationalism, and American politics.
[Taking America Back for God — Featured Review Essay | Sociology of Religion | Oxford Academic | 2021]
Places Whitehead and Perry’s work within scholarship examining religion, cultural grievance, nationalism, Trump, and changing American political coalitions.
[A Book Review on the Topic of Christian Nationalism | Timothy Keller | Gospel in Life | 2021]
Evaluates Whitehead and Perry’s framework while discussing how Christian nationalism should be distinguished from evangelical Christianity and ordinary Christian political activity.
[God and Country: A Short Review of Taking America Back for God | Neil Shenvi | Shenvi Apologetics | 2021]
Critiques the breadth of some Christian-nationalism measurements while agreeing that religious belief can become dangerously fused with nationalism.
[A Careful Critique: Review of Taking America Back for God | Kathy Vandergrift | Christian Courier | September 15, 2020]
Reviews the empirical claims connecting Christian nationalism with race, immigration, gender hierarchy, militarism, and national identity.
[Taking America Back for God: Christian Nationalism in the United States | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | March 2020]
Provides one of the foundational empirical treatments of Christian nationalism, examining political power, social boundaries, hierarchy, immigration, race, gender, guns, and electoral behavior.
[A House Dividing | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Taking America Back for God, Oxford University Press | 2020]
Introduces Christian nationalism as a cultural framework connecting Christianity with American civic identity and explains how the authors measure it.
[Power | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Taking America Back for God, Oxford University Press | 2020]
Examines Christian-nationalist understandings of political authority, social influence, government, and religious power.
[Boundaries | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Taking America Back for God, Oxford University Press | 2020]
Explores how Christian nationalism relates to perceptions of who legitimately belongs within the American national community.
[Order | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Taking America Back for God, Oxford University Press | 2020]
Analyzes connections between Christian nationalism, hierarchy, gender roles, race, policing, guns, and desired social order.
[One Nation Under What? | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Taking America Back for God, Oxford University Press | 2020]
Considers the implications of Christian nationalism for pluralism, citizenship, religion, and American political life.
[Taking America Back for God: Christian Nationalism in the United States — Review | DTS Voice | Dallas Theological Seminary | 2020]
Reviews Whitehead and Perry’s empirical findings concerning Christian nationalism, Trump support, immigration, race, gender, guns, and American identity.
Definitions, Measurement, Critiques, and Alternative Interpretations
[On Christian Nationalism | Jesse Smith | Religious Studies Review | September 2026]
Reviews major strands of Christian-nationalism scholarship and considers competing definitions, methods, critiques, and normative assumptions.
Tests whether the American concept of Christian nationalism can be transferred to Finland, providing comparative insight into religion, nationalism, political identity, and democracy.
| Ibrahim Enes Atac, Lena Kunjan, Forrest Lovette, and Samuel L. Perry | Socius | 2026
Examines Christian nationalism and government-spending preferences, finding associations with greater support for law enforcement and military spending and lower support for several social, environmental, and scientific programs.
| John Ishiyama | Politics and Religion | September 15, 2025
Comparative research outside the United States finding Christian-nationalist attitudes associated with lower support for democracy and greater receptiveness to authoritarian alternatives in African survey data.
| Jesse Smith | Sociological Forum | August 11, 2024
Critiques parts of the Christian-nationalism research program and argues that scholars should be careful about essentialism, tautological reasoning, and selective interpretations.
[How Not to Talk About Christian Nationalism | Christianity Today | Christianity Today | March 2024]
Questions overly broad uses of the Christian-nationalism label and explores distinctions among conservatism, political theology, illiberalism, nationalism, and skepticism toward liberal democracy.
[What Is Christian Nationalism Anyway? | Michelle Boorstein | The Washington Post | May 19, 2023]
Surveys competing definitions involving dominionism, Christian supremacy, religious nationalism, election denial, Christian identity, and political power.
[Christianity Is Not Necessary for Democracy | Paul D. Miller | Christianity Today | March 20, 2023]
Challenges claims that democratic government depends upon maintaining Christian cultural dominance and argues for Christianity operating within pluralistic democratic institutions.
[Are Christian Nationalists Antisemitic and Why? | Paul A. Djupe and colleagues | Social Science Quarterly | February 22, 2023]
Examines whether Christian nationalism is associated with antisemitic attitudes and explores possible connections involving social dominance, partisanship, and persecution narratives.
[Christian Nationalism Debates Expose Clashing Views of Power | Daniel Silliman | Christianity Today | October 31, 2022]
Examines competing evangelical definitions of Christian nationalism and disagreements over political power, elections, religious influence, and national identity.
[Is Christian Nationalism Growing or Declining? Both. | Andrew L. Whitehead | The Washington Post | October 25, 2022]
Argues that broad public support may not be increasing even while Christian nationalism becomes more visible and influential within parts of Republican politics.
[Christian Nationalism Cannot Save the World | Russell Moore | Christianity Today | September 29, 2022]
Offers a theological critique of Christian nationalism and compares American religious nationalism with similar movements internationally.
| Jesse Smith | Religion News Service | September 1, 2022
Distinguishes Christian nationalism from what the author calls Christian republicanism, arguing that religious political engagement can remain compatible with liberal democracy when equal citizenship and constitutional institutions are preserved.
[What Is Christian Nationalism? | Paul D. Miller | Christianity Today | February 3, 2021]
Defines Christian nationalism and distinguishes it from Christianity, patriotism, nationalism, and legitimate religious participation in democratic politics.
Comparative and International Perspectives
| Ilkka Koiranen et al. | Social Compass | April 24, 2026
Questions whether Christian nationalism functions as a single coherent phenomenon across different democratic systems.
| John Ishiyama | Politics and Religion | September 2025
Provides comparative evidence relevant to debates about whether Christian nationalism is inherently anti-democratic or whether its effects depend on political context.
| Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | January 28, 2025
Compares religious nationalism internationally and explores whether respondents believe religious national identity can coexist with democratic government.
[Christian Nationalism’s Threat to Global Democracy | Nilay Saiya | The Review of Faith & International Affairs | 2023]
Places American Christian nationalism within a comparative international context and examines relationships among religious nationalism, authoritarianism, and democratic decline.
[Christian Nationalism Cannot Save the World | Russell Moore | Christianity Today | September 29, 2022]
Offers a theological critique of Christian nationalism and compares American religious nationalism with similar movements internationally.
Reporting, Commentary, Theology, and Contemporary Debate
| PRRI Staff | PRRI | September 24, 2026
Newly released national survey examining resistance to Christian nationalism and its correlation with democratic attitudes.
| Religion News Service | FaithDaily | September 12, 2026
Interview with Rep. Jared Huffman discussing Christian nationalism, authoritarian political tendencies, Congress, and his book No Prophets.
| Religion News Service | FaithDaily | September 5, 2026
Interview with Robert P. Jones about his book Backslide and his interpretation of Christian nationalism, Christianity, authoritarianism, and American democracy.
| David Smith | The Guardian | August 26, 2026
Discusses contemporary congressional concerns about Christian nationalism, January 6, education, science policy, and democratic governance.
| Rotolo and Smith | Pew Research Center | May 14, 2026
Provides one of the most recent nationally representative measurements of American attitudes toward Christian nationalism and religion in government.
[American Democracy Is in Trouble. No, Not Like That. | Scott Waller, Darren Patrick Guerra, and Tim Milosch | Christianity Today | March 4, 2024]
Offers an alternative perspective arguing that discussion of Christian nationalism can be poorly defined and that Christian civic participation may strengthen rather than undermine democracy.
[What Is Christian Nationalism and Why It Raises Concerns About Threats to Democracy | Laura Barrón-López and Sam Lane | PBS NewsHour | February 1, 2024]
Interviews scholar Brad Onishi about the ideology, its history, political influence, and possible implications for pluralistic democracy.
[Can Multiracial Democracy Survive? | Maria J. Stephan | Sojourners | April 2024]
Examines racism, Christian nationalism, authoritarianism, democratic backsliding, and the challenge of developing a durable multiracial American democracy.
[Kristin Kobes Du Mez: Christian Patriarchy and Christian Nationalism Are Intertwined | Sojourners | Sojourners | 2024]
Discusses how contemporary Christian nationalism interacts with gender hierarchy, political power, demographic change, authoritarianism, and skepticism toward democratic outcomes.
[Why Christian Nationalism Makes American Christians Less Christlike | Caleb Campbell | Religion News Service | August 18, 2023]
Presents a theological argument that seeking political dominance can conflict with democratic compromise, religious pluralism, and Christian teachings concerning service and power.
[Understanding the Threat of White Christian Nationalism to American Democracy Today | Brookings Institution and PRRI | Brookings Institution | February 8, 2023]
Presents scholars and survey researchers discussing findings from the PRRI/Brookings Christian Nationalism Survey and their implications for democratic institutions.
[Concerns Grow Over the Increasing Ties Between Christianity and Right-Wing Nationalism | Laura Barrón-López | PBS NewsHour | October 11, 2022]
Interviews historian Kristin Kobes Du Mez about Christian nationalism, political violence, democratic norms, and contemporary conservative politics.
[Christian Nationalism’s Threat to Global Democracy | Nilay Saiya | The Review of Faith & International Affairs | 2023]
Places American Christian nationalism within a comparative international context and examines relationships among religious nationalism, authoritarianism, and democratic decline.
[Paul Raushenbush: Christian Nationalism Is a Threat to the American Way of Life | Religion News Service | Religion News Service | July 22, 2022]
Discusses the relationship among Christian nationalism, voting rights, religious diversity, church-state separation, and democratic citizenship.
[Christ, Country, and Conspiracies? Christian Nationalism, Biblical Literalism, and Belief in Conspiracy Theories | Brooklyn Walker and Abigail Vegter | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | May 8, 2023]
Finds Christian nationalism and biblical literalism independently associated with generalized conspiracy thinking, with stronger effects when the two overlap.
