Skin Cancer Risk
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Skin Cancer Risk
Skin cancer risk is shaped by a combination of environmental exposure, inherited susceptibility, pigmentation, age, immune function, medical history, medications, and other biological factors. The major forms of skin cancer include basal cell carcinoma (BCC), cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and melanoma. Although these cancers differ biologically, ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a major preventable cause across much of the skin-cancer spectrum.
Risk is not evenly distributed. People with fair or sun-sensitive skin, large numbers of moles, certain inherited variants, previous skin cancer, chronic immune suppression, or extensive cumulative sun exposure may face substantially greater risk than the general population. Some medical treatments, chronic inflammatory skin conditions, environmental exposures, and genetic syndromes further increase susceptibility.
The evidence also shows that risk should not be understood as a single-factor process. UV exposure often interacts with pigmentation, genetics, immune function, age, behavior, and medical history. For melanoma in particular, intermittent intense sunlight and severe sunburn can be important, while cumulative occupational exposure is especially relevant to SCC and other keratinocyte cancers.
Ultraviolet Radiation, Sunburn and Tanning
Ultraviolet radiation is the best-established environmental cause of skin cancer. Both UVA and UVB can damage skin cells and DNA, contributing to mutations that accumulate over time.
Patterns of exposure matter. Chronic cumulative sun exposure is strongly associated with squamous cell carcinoma and contributes to basal cell carcinoma, while melanoma has frequently been associated with intermittent intense exposure and episodes of sunburn. Repeated sunburns during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood have all been associated with greater melanoma risk.
Indoor tanning is another important source of artificial UV radiation. Studies and meta-analyses have associated tanning-bed use with melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma. Risk tends to rise with increasing exposure, and starting indoor tanning at a younger age is associated with particularly concerning risk patterns.
Occupational exposure also contributes substantially to disease burden. Outdoor workers may accumulate high lifetime doses of solar UV radiation, and research has repeatedly associated occupational sunlight exposure with elevated SCC risk. Reflective surfaces, geographic location, altitude, recreational habits, and duration of outdoor exposure can further modify UV dose.
Pigmentation, Moles and Genetic Susceptibility
Natural pigmentation strongly influences susceptibility to UV injury. Fair skin, red or blond hair, light-colored eyes, freckling, inability to tan, and a tendency to burn are consistently associated with increased melanoma risk. Reduced melanin protection allows more UV radiation to reach vulnerable skin cells.
Mole burden is another major melanoma predictor. People with many common nevi, large nevi, or atypical or dysplastic nevi have substantially greater melanoma risk. Risk rises further when high nevus counts occur together with other susceptibility factors such as fair pigmentation or high-risk genetic variants.
Family history also plays an important role. Having a first-degree relative with melanoma approximately doubles risk in many studies, although familial melanoma accounts for only a minority of melanoma cases overall.
A number of inherited genes influence susceptibility. High-penetrance familial melanoma genes include CDKN2A and CDK4, while other implicated genes include BAP1, TERT, POT1, ACD, TERF2IP and MITF. Variants in MC1R, a gene strongly involved in pigmentation and red hair, are also associated with melanoma susceptibility. Some MC1R-associated risk appears to extend beyond visible characteristics such as hair color and skin type.
Genetic and environmental influences frequently interact. A person with inherited susceptibility may experience substantially different risk depending on mole number, sunburn history, UV exposure, skin phenotype, and other environmental factors.
Previous Skin Cancer and Actinic Damage
A previous skin cancer is an important predictor of future skin cancer. People who have had melanoma are at increased risk of developing another melanoma as well as basal and squamous cell carcinomas.
Similarly, people previously diagnosed with BCC or SCC have higher rates of subsequent cutaneous malignancies. A history of multiple tumors, severe sun damage, older age, and skin that burns easily can further increase recurrence risk.
Actinic keratoses are markers of substantial cumulative UV damage and are associated with increased subsequent SCC, BCC, and melanoma occurrence. Their presence can therefore indicate a broader field of chronically sun-damaged skin rather than simply an isolated precancerous lesion.
Age, Sex and Other Host Factors
Skin cancer risk generally increases with age because DNA damage and environmental exposure accumulate over time. Age also interacts with immune function, previous skin cancer, medication exposure, and cumulative sunlight.
Sex differences are also seen in melanoma incidence and outcomes. These differences may reflect behavioral patterns, occupational and recreational UV exposure, hormonal effects, immune biology, and anatomical differences in where melanomas tend to arise.
Research has examined additional host factors including obesity, smoking, reproductive history, and hormonal exposure. Some studies report associations, but these relationships are less consistent than the evidence for UV exposure, pigmentation, nevi, inherited susceptibility, and immune suppression.
Immune Suppression and Organ Transplantation
Immune suppression is one of the strongest medical risk factors for skin cancer. Solid-organ transplant recipients experience markedly elevated rates of cutaneous malignancy, particularly squamous cell carcinoma.
Long-term immunosuppressive therapy reduces the immune system's ability to detect and eliminate abnormal cells. Risk varies with the intensity and duration of immune suppression, the type of transplanted organ, patient age, skin phototype, cumulative UV exposure, and previous skin cancer.
Heart and lung transplant recipients may face especially high risks because they often require intensive immunosuppressive regimens. Lung transplant recipients receiving long-term voriconazole have also shown increased SCC risk in multiple studies.
Certain immunosuppressive drug strategies appear to influence risk differently. Calcineurin-inhibitor-based regimens have been associated with substantial skin-cancer burdens, while conversion to sirolimus-based therapy has reduced recurrent or new nonmelanoma skin cancers in some transplant populations.
Immune Disorders and Inflammatory Disease
Skin-cancer risk is also elevated in several disorders involving impaired immune surveillance. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia is associated with increased BCC and SCC incidence and can also be associated with more aggressive clinical behavior.
People living with HIV have increased occurrence of several skin cancers, including SCC and some uncommon cutaneous malignancies, although melanoma findings have been less consistent.
Inflammatory bowel disease has been associated with modestly elevated melanoma and nonmelanoma skin-cancer risk in some studies. Part of this risk may relate to immune-modifying treatment. Thiopurine therapy in particular has repeatedly been associated with increased nonmelanoma skin cancer.
Biologic therapies, TNF inhibitors, JAK inhibitors, methotrexate, ciclosporin, and other immune-modifying agents have also been studied. The degree of risk varies considerably by treatment, underlying disease, duration of therapy, prior treatment, and patient characteristics.
Medications and Photosensitization
Some medications can increase sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation or otherwise influence skin-cancer susceptibility.
Hydrochlorothiazide has received particular attention. Large observational studies and meta-analyses have reported dose-related associations between cumulative hydrochlorothiazide exposure and SCC, with smaller or less consistent associations for other skin-cancer types.
Other antihypertensive medications and photosensitizing drugs have also been examined. Associations are generally smaller and less certain, and interpretation can be complicated by confounding from age, sun exposure, medical conditions, and differences between drug users and nonusers.
Voriconazole is an important example in immunosuppressed populations. Prolonged exposure among lung and other transplant recipients has been associated with increased cutaneous SCC risk.
Radiation, Chemicals and Infectious Factors
Skin cancer can also result from carcinogenic exposures other than ordinary sunlight.
Therapeutic ionizing radiation, particularly when received at a young age, has been associated with later basal cell carcinoma at irradiated sites. Childhood cancer survivors exposed to radiotherapy can therefore remain at increased skin-cancer risk decades after treatment.
PUVA therapy, which combines psoralen with UVA radiation, has been associated with dose-dependent SCC risk after high cumulative exposure.
Chronic arsenic exposure, including contaminated drinking water, is associated with characteristic skin lesions and increased basal and squamous cell carcinoma risk.
Research has also examined beta-genus human papillomaviruses as possible contributors to cutaneous SCC. HPV may be particularly relevant when combined with UV damage, immune suppression, or severe pigmentation deficiency.
Albinism and Severe Pigmentation Deficiency
People with albinism have greatly reduced or absent protective melanin and therefore face extreme susceptibility to UV-induced skin injury.
In high-UV regions, particularly parts of Africa, actinic keratoses and skin cancers may develop at unusually young ages. Squamous cell carcinoma is especially prominent, although basal cell carcinoma and other malignancies also occur.
The combination of intense solar exposure and deficient pigmentation makes effective photoprotection particularly important for people with oculocutaneous albinism.
Congenital melanocytic nevi represent a different high-risk condition. Large and giant congenital nevi are associated with substantially greater melanoma risk than small lesions, with risk influenced by lesion size and other clinical characteristics.
Chronic Inflammation, Wounds and Scars
Longstanding inflammation and tissue injury can create an environment in which squamous cell carcinoma develops.
SCC can arise in chronic ulcers, old burn scars, and other longstanding wounds, historically referred to in many cases as Marjolin ulcers. Malignant transformation may occur decades after the original injury.
Hidradenitis suppurativa is another important example. Severe longstanding disease, particularly in gluteal, perianal, genital, or perineal areas, has been associated with aggressive SCC.
Chronic discoid lupus erythematosus can also occasionally give rise to SCC within scarred or persistently inflamed lesions. Epidermolysis bullosa represents another high-risk setting in which repeated injury and chronic wounds are associated with aggressive cutaneous malignancy.
These conditions illustrate that chronic inflammation, repeated tissue repair, scarring, infection, and impaired local immune surveillance can contribute to carcinogenesis independently of ordinary sun exposure.
Vitamin D and Melanoma Research
Vitamin D has attracted considerable attention because sunlight both increases vitamin D production and contributes to skin-cancer risk.
Some studies have found lower vitamin D levels among melanoma patients or associations between vitamin D deficiency and less favorable tumor characteristics. However, these findings do not demonstrate that vitamin D deficiency causes melanoma.
Umbrella reviews and meta-analyses examining circulating vitamin D, dietary intake, supplements, and vitamin D receptor variants have produced inconsistent results. The available evidence therefore does not justify increasing unprotected UV exposure in an attempt to improve vitamin D status.
Diet, Coffee and Phototoxic Foods
Dietary factors remain an area of active but comparatively uncertain research.
Several observational studies and meta-analyses have reported a modest inverse association between caffeinated coffee consumption and melanoma or basal cell carcinoma. Because these studies are observational, they cannot establish that coffee itself prevents skin cancer.
Citrus consumption has also been investigated because some citrus foods contain naturally occurring furocoumarins that can interact with ultraviolet radiation. Some cohorts have reported positive associations with melanoma or other skin cancers, while others found little or no significant relationship.
These dietary findings remain far less established than major risk factors such as UV radiation, pigmentation, mole burden, genetics, immune suppression, and previous skin cancer.
Associated Conditions and Emerging Risk Research
Researchers continue to investigate additional possible associations with skin cancer.
Parkinson's disease has repeatedly been associated with melanoma in epidemiological studies, although the biological explanation remains uncertain. Some research also suggests a modest association with nonmelanoma skin cancers.
Alcohol consumption has been associated with slightly elevated melanoma incidence in some meta-analyses, but residual confounding from sun exposure and lifestyle differences remains possible.
Hormonal and reproductive factors, including oral contraceptives and menopausal hormone therapy, have also been studied. Reported associations are generally small and inconsistent.
These findings should be distinguished from well-established risk factors. Association does not necessarily demonstrate causation, particularly when behavior, UV exposure, socioeconomic factors, medical surveillance, and other variables may differ between comparison groups.
Risk Prediction and Multiple Primary Melanoma
Because skin cancer results from multiple interacting factors, researchers have developed risk-prediction models combining demographic, phenotypic, genetic, and exposure variables.
Frequently used predictors include age, sex, ancestry, hair color, skin type, freckling, tanning ability, history of severe sunburn, mole number, atypical nevi, family history, previous keratinocyte cancer, actinic damage, and tanning-bed exposure.
People who have already developed melanoma require particular attention because they face increased risk of additional primary melanomas. Multiple-primary melanoma is associated with high nevus burden, atypical nevi, family history, fair pigmentation, male sex in some cohorts, and inherited susceptibility variants.
Risk models may help identify people who could benefit most from surveillance, but they complement rather than replace clinical examination and individualized medical assessment.
Conclusion
Skin cancer develops through interactions among ultraviolet radiation, inherited susceptibility, pigmentation, aging, immune function, medical history, medications, chronic inflammation, and environmental exposures.
The strongest and most consistently supported risk factors include excessive UV exposure, repeated sunburn, indoor tanning, fair or sun-sensitive pigmentation, numerous or atypical moles, family history and inherited susceptibility, previous skin cancer, actinic damage, immune suppression, organ transplantation, and certain high-risk medical conditions.
Some exposures primarily increase particular forms of skin cancer. Chronic cumulative sunlight is especially important for squamous cell carcinoma, while intermittent intense exposure and sunburn are prominent melanoma risks. Immunosuppressed people face particularly high SCC burdens, and severe pigmentation deficiency such as albinism greatly magnifies UV susceptibility.
Other proposed influences—including vitamin D status, coffee, citrus intake, alcohol, hormones, obesity, and several associated diseases—remain areas of ongoing research and generally have weaker or less certain evidence.
Overall, the evidence supports viewing skin-cancer risk as cumulative and multifactorial. Reducing avoidable UV exposure, avoiding indoor tanning, recognizing high-risk phenotypes and medical conditions, and maintaining appropriate surveillance are central to reducing disease burden and identifying cancers earlier.
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General Skin Cancer Risk
1. Skin Cancer Risk Factors | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | CDC | June 17, 2026
Summarizes major skin cancer risk factors, including lighter natural skin color, sun-sensitive skin, light eyes or hair, numerous or atypical moles, sunburns, tanning, family history, previous skin cancer, and older age.
2. Skin Cancer Prevention (PDQ) | National Cancer Institute | NCI | 2025
Reviews established and suspected risk factors for melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancer, emphasizing ultraviolet radiation, complexion, actinic keratosis, immune suppression, and previous skin cancer.
3. Basal Cell Carcinoma — Symptoms and Causes | Mayo Clinic | Mayo Clinic | 2025
Discusses ultraviolet exposure, family history and weakened immunity among factors increasing susceptibility to basal cell carcinoma.
4. Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Skin — Symptoms and Causes | Mayo Clinic | Mayo Clinic | 2025
Covers sun exposure, tanning beds, blistering sunburns, precancerous lesions, previous skin cancer, immune suppression, genetic disorders, HPV, scars, burns, and chronic wounds.
5. The Known Health Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation | World Health Organization | WHO | July 16, 2024
Explains how UVA and UVB damage skin and DNA, with cumulative exposure particularly associated with squamous cell carcinoma and intermittent intense exposure and sunburn associated with melanoma.
6. Basal Cell Carcinoma | DermNet | DermNet | 2023
Describes BCC risk associated with age, previous skin cancer, sun damage, sunburn, pigmentation, inherited syndromes, ionizing radiation, arsenic, immune suppression, and certain medications.
7. Ultraviolet Radiation | World Health Organization | WHO | June 21, 2022
Provides a global overview of UV-related skin cancer and identifies children, fair-skinned people, people with numerous nevi, outdoor workers, and users of photosensitizing medications as groups with increased risk.
8. Melanoma | DermNet | DermNet | 2022
Reviews recognized melanoma risk factors including increasing age, previous melanoma or keratinocyte cancer, many or atypical nevi, family history, fair skin, UV exposure, sunburn, Parkinson disease, and immune suppression.
9. Ultraviolet Radiation and Skin Cancer | World Health Organization | WHO | October 16, 2017
Reviews evidence linking ultraviolet radiation with melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancers and discusses pigmentation, moles, sunburn, intermittent exposure, latitude, and cumulative exposure.
10. Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Amanda Oakley | DermNet | Updated 2015
Reviews SCC risk factors including actinic keratoses, outdoor exposure, smoking, fair pigmentation, chronic wounds, inherited syndromes, arsenic, radiation, immune suppression, transplantation, HPV, and hydrochlorothiazide.
11. Common Moles, Dysplastic Nevi, and Risk of Melanoma | National Cancer Institute | NCI | n.d.
Explains how numerous moles, dysplastic nevi, fair complexion, severe sunburns, tanning, family history, inherited syndromes, and weakened immunity can increase melanoma risk.
12. Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention of Melanoma Skin Cancer | American Cancer Society | American Cancer Society | n.d.
Reviews melanoma risk from UV radiation, tanning devices, fair pigmentation, moles, family history, inherited mutations, previous skin cancer, immune suppression, age, sex, and xeroderma pigmentosum.
13. Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention of Basal Cell Carcinoma | American Cancer Society | American Cancer Society | n.d.
Describes ultraviolet exposure as the principal environmental risk for basal cell carcinoma while discussing additional inherited, medical, and environmental susceptibility factors.
14. Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention of Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Skin | American Cancer Society | American Cancer Society | n.d.
Reviews repeated UV exposure, tanning beds and other factors contributing to cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and explains how DNA damage accumulates in exposed skin.
15. Risks and Causes of Melanoma Skin Cancer | Cancer Research UK | Cancer Research UK | n.d.
Covers age, intermittent UV exposure, sunburn, sunbeds, skin pigmentation, freckles, mole number, congenital nevi, family history, inherited mutations, and immune suppression.
16. Risks and Causes of Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer | Cancer Research UK | Cancer Research UK | n.d.
Reviews risks for basal and squamous cell carcinoma, including age, sunlight, sunbeds, sunburn, fair pigmentation, outdoor occupations, albinism, previous disease, and immune suppression.
17. Melanoma Facts and Statistics | American Academy of Dermatology | AAD | n.d.
Summarizes epidemiological evidence connecting melanoma to ultraviolet radiation, blistering sunburns, indoor tanning, genetics, and immune-system deficiencies.
18. Skin Cancer Facts & Statistics | Skin Cancer Foundation | Skin Cancer Foundation | n.d.
Provides statistics on melanoma and keratinocyte cancers, including evidence concerning UV exposure, repeated sunburns, tanning, organ transplantation, age, and sex.
Ultraviolet Radiation, Sunburn, Tanning and Occupational Exposure
19. Protecting Against Skin Cancer | World Health Organization | WHO | July 16, 2024
Discusses occupational and recreational ultraviolet exposure, intermittent intense exposure during vacations, reflective surfaces, and strategies for reducing avoidable UV damage.
20. The Risks of Tanning | U.S. Food and Drug Administration | FDA | 2024
Explains that tanning represents UV-induced skin injury rather than protection and reviews evidence that tanning devices increase skin cancer risk.
21. Global Burden of Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer Attributable to Occupational Solar UV Radiation | World Health Organization and International Labour Organization | WHO | November 8, 2023
Reviews worldwide evidence that occupational exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation increases the burden of nonmelanoma skin cancer.
22. A Meta-Analysis of Sunburn and Basal Cell Carcinoma Risk | Lashway et al. | Cancer Epidemiology | 2023
Analysis of 38 studies found BCC risk rose with increasing numbers of sunburns during childhood, adulthood, and across the lifetime.
23. Indoor Tanning and the Risk of Overall and Early-Onset Melanoma and Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer | An et al. | Cancers | 2021
Systematic review found indoor tanning associated with melanoma, SCC, BCC and overall nonmelanoma skin cancer, with particularly elevated risks for early-onset disease and greater exposure.
24. Do Airline Pilots and Cabin Crew Have Raised Risks of Melanoma and Other Skin Cancers? | Miura et al. | British Journal of Dermatology | 2019
Systematic review found elevated melanoma and keratinocyte-cancer incidence among pilots and cabin crew while noting that much of the underlying evidence is decades old.
25. Long-Term Risk of Skin Cancer Among Childhood Cancer Survivors | Multiple authors | Journal of the National Cancer Institute | 2019
Dutch survivor cohort found very high BCC incidence following childhood radiotherapy, with additional excesses of melanoma and SCC.
26. Epidemiological Evidence of Carcinogenicity of Sunbed Use and of Efficacy of Preventive Measures | Multiple authors | Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology | 2019
Reviews epidemiological evidence linking artificial tanning with melanoma, BCC and SCC and emphasizes increased risk when exposure begins young.
27. Is Ultraviolet Exposure Acquired at Work the Most Important Risk Factor for Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma? | Multiple authors | British Journal of Dermatology | 2018
Population-based study found a dose-response relationship between occupational solar UV exposure and SCC after adjustment for other risk factors.
28. Indoor Tanning and Melanoma Risk: Long-Term Evidence From a Prospective Population-Based Cohort Study | Multiple authors | American Journal of Epidemiology | 2017
Norwegian prospective cohort examined age at tanning initiation, duration, cumulative exposure, and subsequent melanoma occurrence.
29. The Risk of Melanoma in Airline Pilots and Cabin Crew: A Meta-Analysis | Sanlorenzo et al. | JAMA Dermatology | 2015
Meta-analysis found melanoma incidence roughly twice that of the general population among flight-based workers, although the responsible occupational or lifestyle exposures remain debated.
30. The Association of Indoor Tanning and Melanoma in Adults | Colantonio et al. | Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology | 2014
Meta-analysis found melanoma risk increased among indoor tanning users and rose further among people reporting more than ten tanning sessions.
31. Indoor Tanning and Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer | Wehner et al. | BMJ | 2012
Meta-analysis found indoor tanning associated with increased risks of both squamous and basal cell carcinomas, with stronger associations when tanning began at younger ages.
32. Cutaneous Melanoma Attributable to Sunbed Use | Boniol et al. | BMJ | 2012
Meta-analysis found melanoma risk increased with sunbed exposure, showed a dose-response relationship, and was particularly elevated when tanning began at younger ages.
33. Occupational Ultraviolet Light Exposure Increases the Risk for Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Schmitt et al. | British Journal of Dermatology | 2011
Systematic review and meta-analysis found consistent evidence that occupational UV exposure increases cutaneous SCC risk, with a pooled risk estimate substantially above that of unexposed workers.
34. Sunburns and Risk of Cutaneous Melanoma: Does Age Matter? | Dennis et al. | Annals of Epidemiology | 2008
Meta-analysis of 51 study populations found increasing melanoma risk with greater numbers of sunburns during childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and across the lifetime.
35. Skin Cancer in Survivors of Childhood and Adolescent Cancer | Multiple authors | European Journal of Cancer | 2006
Survivor study found strongly elevated BCC incidence following ionizing-radiation exposure received at young ages.
36. Meta-Analysis of Risk Factors for Cutaneous Melanoma: II. Sun Exposure | Gandini et al. | European Journal of Cancer | 2005
Analysis of 57 studies found intermittent sun exposure and sunburn important melanoma risk factors while illustrating the complex relationship between melanoma and chronic occupational exposure.
37. Childhood Sun Exposure as a Risk Factor for Melanoma | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed systematic review | 2001
Reviews evidence concerning childhood as a period of susceptibility to UV carcinogenesis and discusses the difficulty of accurately measuring age-specific historical sun exposure.
38. Melanoma and Sun Exposure: An Overview of Published Studies | Elwood and Jopson | International Journal of Cancer | 1997
Reviews evidence showing increased melanoma risk from intermittent intense sunlight and sunburn while illustrating the more complex findings for chronic occupational exposure.
39. Sunlight Exposure, Pigmentation Factors, and Risk of Nonmelanocytic Skin Cancer: Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Multiple authors | Journal of the National Cancer Institute | 1995
Reports increased SCC risk with pale skin, red hair, and chronic occupational sun exposure near the time of diagnosis.
Pigmentation, Moles, Family History and Genetics
40. Acral Melanoma: Review of Clinical, Histologic, and Molecular Findings | Ravichandran and Messina | Surgical Pathology Clinics | 2026
Reviews the distinctive biology and epidemiology of acral melanoma, which differs from the UV-dominated risk pattern of many other cutaneous melanomas.
41. Acral Melanoma Following Trauma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed systematic review | 2026
Examines reports of preceding trauma in acral melanoma and finds an association in the limited case-control evidence, while highlighting an area still requiring further investigation.
42. Risk Factors for Incident Nevus-Associated vs De Novo Invasive Melanoma | Multiple authors | JAMA Dermatology | 2025
QSkin prospective data compare risk profiles of melanomas arising with pre-existing nevi with melanomas apparently developing de novo.
43. Unveiling the Genetic Landscape of Hereditary Melanoma | Multiple authors | Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology | 2024
Reviews high-, medium-, and lower-penetrance susceptibility genes and explains how inherited melanoma syndromes can also predispose carriers to certain internal cancers.
44. Familial Melanoma and Susceptibility Genes | Multiple authors | Journal of Clinical Medicine | 2021
Reviews melanoma families, genetic susceptibility, clinical characteristics, associated malignancies, dermoscopic features, and implications for surveillance.
45. The Interplay Between Nevi and Melanoma Predisposition Unravels Nevi-Related and Nevi-Resistant Familial Melanoma | Multiple authors | Cancers | 2021
Examines how inherited propensity to develop numerous nevi and high-penetrance melanoma mutations represent overlapping but partly distinct pathways to familial melanoma.
46. Germline Mutations Predisposing to Melanoma | Multiple authors | Journal of Cutaneous Pathology | 2020
Summarizes hereditary melanoma genes including CDKN2A, CDK4, TERT, POT1, MITF, MC1R and BAP1 and discusses melanoma risk in broader inherited cancer syndromes.
47. Effects of Exogenous Hormones and Reproductive Factors on Female Melanoma: A Meta-Analysis | Sun et al. | Frontiers in Endocrinology | 2020
Reviews oral contraceptives, hormone replacement therapy, parity, and reproductive history, finding small associations for some exposures while emphasizing possible confounding.
48. Familial Melanoma: Diagnostic and Management Implications | Multiple authors | Dermatology Practical & Conceptual | 2019
Reviews familial melanoma and the major high-penetrance CDKN2A gene along with rarer susceptibility genes including CDK4, BAP1, TERT, POT1, ACD, TERF2IP, and MITF.
49. High Naevus Count and MC1R Red Hair Alleles Contribute Synergistically to Increased Melanoma Risk | Multiple authors | British Journal of Dermatology | 2019
Reports that a high mole count combined with red hair or high-risk MC1R variants can produce substantially greater melanoma risk than either characteristic alone.
50. Melanoma Risk Prediction Model Incorporating Clinically Assessed Naevi and Solar Lentigines | Multiple authors | British Journal of Dermatology | 2019
Develops and externally validates a prediction model using mole counts, solar lentigines, hair color, and previous keratinocyte cancer.
51. Genetic Predisposition to Melanoma | Multiple authors | Dermatologic Clinics | 2017
Reviews inherited melanoma susceptibility, including pigmentation, nevus number, UV response, familial clustering, and mutations affecting genes such as CDKN2A, MC1R, and TERT.
52. Development and Validation of a Melanoma Risk Score Based on Pooled Data From 16 Case-Control Studies | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed study | 2015
Builds a melanoma prediction model incorporating hair color, skin type, family history, freckles, nevus count, large nevi, and history of sunburn.
53. MC1R Variants Increased the Risk of Sporadic Cutaneous Melanoma in Darker-Pigmented Caucasians | Multiple authors / M-SKIP Study Group | PubMed-indexed pooled analysis | 2014
Large pooled analysis suggests MC1R variants can substantially increase melanoma susceptibility even among people without the classic red-haired or highly sun-sensitive phenotype.
54. Melanocortin 1 Receptor and Risk of Cutaneous Melanoma | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed meta-analysis | 2011
Estimates melanoma risk attributable to common MC1R variants and finds increased risk associated with both red-hair and non-red-hair MC1R variants.
55. Hormonal and Reproductive Factors in Relation to Melanoma in Women: Current Review and Meta-Analysis | Multiple authors | European Journal of Cancer | 2011
Found no clear melanoma increase from oral contraceptives or hormone replacement therapy, while associations involving parity and age at first pregnancy remained uncertain.
56. Familial Melanoma: A Meta-Analysis and Estimates of Attributable Fraction | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed meta-analysis | 2010
Finds an approximately twofold melanoma risk associated with positive family history while showing that familial clustering accounts for a minority of melanoma cases overall.
57. Does MC1R Genotype Convey Information About Melanoma Risk Beyond Risk Phenotypes? | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed study | 2010
Shows that MC1R genotype can add melanoma-risk information beyond hair color, eye color, tanning response, freckles, and reported sun exposure.
58. MC1R Variants, Melanoma and Red Hair Color Phenotype | Multiple authors | International Journal of Cancer | 2008
Meta-analysis found several MC1R variants associated with increased melanoma susceptibility, with many of the same variants also strongly associated with red hair and fair pigmentation.
59. Genetics: What Advice for Patients Who Present With a Family History of Melanoma? | Multiple authors | British Journal of Dermatology | 2007
Discusses CDKN2A, CDK4, MC1R, pigmentation, family history, genetic counseling, and environmental modification of inherited melanoma susceptibility.
60. Melanoma Genetics: A Review of Genetic Factors and Clinical Phenotypes in Familial Melanoma | Pho, Grossman and Leachman | Current Opinion in Oncology | 2006
Reviews high-penetrance familial melanoma genes, MC1R variants, atypical nevi, and interactions between inherited susceptibility and ultraviolet exposure.
61. Meta-Analysis of Risk Factors for Cutaneous Melanoma: I. Common and Atypical Naevi | Gandini et al. | European Journal of Cancer | 2005
Demonstrates a strong dose-response relationship between mole burden and melanoma, with particularly high risks among people with very numerous common or atypical nevi.
62. Meta-Analysis of Risk Factors for Cutaneous Melanoma: III. Family History, Actinic Damage and Phenotypic Factors | Gandini et al. | European Journal of Cancer | 2005
Quantifies increased melanoma risk associated with family history, red hair, fair skin, blue eyes, dense freckling, sun-sensitive skin, actinic damage, and previous premalignant or malignant skin lesions.
63. Familial Aggregation of Melanoma Risks in a Large Population-Based Sample of Melanoma Cases | Multiple authors | Cancer Causes & Control | 2004
Shows elevated melanoma incidence among first-degree relatives, particularly relatives of patients diagnosed at younger ages.
64. MC1R Gene Variants Are Associated With Increased Melanoma Risk Largely Independent of Skin Type and Hair Color | Multiple authors | Journal of Investigative Dermatology | 2001
Provides evidence that MC1R variants contribute to melanoma susceptibility beyond their effects on visible pigmentation characteristics.
65. Genetic and Environmental Influences in the Development of Multiple Primary Melanoma | Multiple authors | Archives of Dermatology | 1999
Finds multiple melanoma particularly associated with family history, large numbers of benign nevi, atypical nevi, and germline CDKN2A mutations.
66. Risk of Cutaneous Melanoma Associated With Pigmentation Characteristics and Freckling | International Melanoma Analysis Group | International Journal of Cancer | 1995
Pooled individual-level data show higher melanoma risk with red or blond hair, lighter eyes, lighter complexion, and freckling.
67. Risk of Cutaneous Melanoma Associated With a Family History of the Disease | International Melanoma Analysis Group | International Journal of Cancer | 1995
Combined data from eight case-control studies found melanoma risk more than doubled in people reporting an affected first-degree relative.
68. Pigmentary Traits, Ethnic Origin, Benign Nevi, and Family History as Risk Factors for Cutaneous Malignant Melanoma | Multiple authors | American Journal of Epidemiology | 1984
Reports independent melanoma associations with inability to tan, sunburn susceptibility, hair color, benign nevi, and having affected blood relatives.
Previous Skin Cancer and Actinic Damage
69. Risk of Melanoma in Patients With Basal Cell Carcinoma | Multiple authors | Acta Dermato-Venereologica | 2023
Population cohort found patients with basal cell carcinoma had markedly higher subsequent melanoma incidence than people without BCC.
70. Actinic Keratosis Diagnosis and Increased Risk of Developing Skin Cancer | Multiple authors | Acta Dermato-Venereologica | 2020
Ten-year cohort study found people diagnosed with actinic keratosis had substantially higher subsequent risks of SCC, BCC, and melanoma than matched controls.
71. Risk of Melanoma Following Keratinocyte Malignancies | Multiple authors | International Journal of Cancer | 2020
Examines melanoma after BCC or SCC and identifies age, pigmentation, burning tendency, nevi, childhood sunburn, and tumor location as additional predictors.
72. Risks of Different Skin Tumour Combinations After a First Melanoma, SCC and BCC | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed population study | 2017
Dutch population cohorts demonstrate long-lasting elevated risks of developing another type of cutaneous malignancy after melanoma, SCC, or BCC.
73. Risk of Subsequent Cutaneous Malignancy in Patients With Prior Melanoma | Multiple authors | Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology | 2015
Meta-analysis shows that melanoma survivors have substantially increased risks of subsequent melanoma as well as elevated BCC and SCC risks.
74. Basal Cell Carcinoma and Risk of Subsequent Malignancies | Multiple authors | Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology | 2000
Cancer-registry study found people with BCC had an elevated subsequent melanoma risk, consistent with shared susceptibility and UV-related risk factors.
75. Incidence of Invasive Cancers Following Cutaneous Malignant Melanoma | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed cohort study | 1997
Long-term follow-up confirms elevated subsequent melanoma, SCC and BCC risks among people previously diagnosed with melanoma.
76. Risk for Subsequent Cancer After Diagnosis of Basal-Cell Carcinoma | Multiple authors | Annals of Internal Medicine | 1996
Population study found melanoma occurred considerably more often after a BCC diagnosis than expected, supporting BCC as a marker of elevated future skin-cancer susceptibility.
77. Risk of Subsequent Basal Cell Carcinoma and Squamous Cell Carcinoma Among Patients With Prior Skin Cancer | Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group | JAMA | 1992
Follow-up study found high recurrence rates after keratinocyte cancer, particularly among older men, people with multiple previous tumors, severe actinic damage, and skin that burns easily.
Demographic and Other Host Factors
78. The Association Between Smoking and Risk of Skin Cancer | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed meta-analysis | 2020
Meta-analysis found current smoking associated with higher SCC risk but lower observed BCC and melanoma incidence, illustrating that smoking relationships vary substantially by skin-cancer subtype and may involve confounding.
79. Sex Differences in Melanoma | Schwartz, Luo and Berwick | Current Epidemiology Reports | 2019
Reviews differences in melanoma incidence and outcomes between men and women and considers behavioral, hormonal, immune, and biological explanations.
80. Current Data on Risk Factor Estimates Does Not Explain the Difference in Rates of Melanoma Between Hispanics and Non-Hispanic Whites | Multiple authors | Journal of Skin Cancer | 2016
Reviews pigmentation, nevi, sun exposure and other factors and concludes that measured differences do not fully explain the much lower melanoma incidence observed among U.S. Hispanics.
81. Obesity and Risk of Malignant Melanoma | Sergentanis et al. | European Journal of Cancer | 2013
Meta-analysis found overweight and obesity associated with increased melanoma risk in men, while results for women were not statistically significant and could be influenced by sun-exposure differences.
Immune Suppression and Organ Transplantation
82. Skin Cancer in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients: A Review | van Ammers and Chong | American Journal of Clinical Dermatology | 2026
Reviews the substantially elevated skin-cancer burden among solid-organ transplant recipients resulting from long-term immunosuppression and carcinogenic effects of some anti-rejection therapies.
83. Skin Cancers in Italian Lung Transplant Recipients | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed study | 2021
Identifies age, male sex, light phototype and voriconazole exposure among predictors of post-transplant skin cancer.
84. Factors Associated With Skin Cancer in Lung Transplant Recipients | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed cohort study | 2019
Finds pre-transplant skin cancer history and prolonged voriconazole use among factors associated with increased post-transplant SCC risk.
85. Voriconazole Exposure and Risk of Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Among Transplant Patients | Multiple authors | Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology | 2018
Systematic review and meta-analysis found voriconazole exposure associated with increased SCC risk in lung and hematopoietic-cell transplant populations.
86. Skin Cancers in Organ Transplant Recipients | Multiple authors | American Journal of Transplantation | 2017
Reviews SCC, BCC, melanoma, Merkel cell carcinoma and Kaposi sarcoma in transplant recipients and the role of reduced immune tumor surveillance.
87. Incidence and Risk Factors for Skin Cancer Following Lung Transplantation | Rashtak et al. | Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology | 2015
Reports high cumulative SCC and BCC incidence following lung transplantation, with increasing age, male sex, and prior skin cancer among important predictors.
88. Increased Incidence of Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Lung Transplant Recipients Taking Long-Term Voriconazole | Feist et al. | Journal of Heart and Lung Transplantation | 2012
Reports an association between prolonged voriconazole treatment and SCC among lung-transplant recipients, with risk increasing with duration of therapy.
89. Incidence of and Risk Factors for Skin Cancer After Heart Transplant | Brewer et al. | Archives of Dermatology | 2010
Documents a high cumulative skin-cancer burden among heart transplant recipients and identifies age and other post-transplant clinical factors affecting risk.
90. Skin Cancer in Heart Transplant Recipients: Frequency and Risk Factor Analysis | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed transplant study | 2000
Finds skin cancer associated with age, skin phototype and high cumulative sunlight exposure in transplant recipients.
91. Are Heart Transplant Recipients More Likely to Develop Skin Cancer Than Kidney Transplant Recipients? | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed transplant study | 2000
Reports a substantially greater SCC risk in heart than kidney transplant recipients, plausibly reflecting differences in the intensity of immunosuppressive therapy.
92. Skin Cancer in Heart Transplant Recipients: Risk Factor Analysis and Relevance of Immunosuppressive Therapy | Multiple authors | Circulation | 2000
Investigates skin-tumor incidence following heart transplantation and evaluates demographic, sunlight, rejection, and immunosuppressive-treatment factors.
93. Skin Cancer in Kidney and Heart Transplant Recipients and Different Long-Term Immunosuppressive Therapy Regimens | Multiple authors | Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology | 1999
Reports dramatically increased SCC and elevated melanoma risks after transplantation and links SCC risk to the intensity and type of long-term immunosuppression.
Immune Disorders, Inflammatory Disease and Immunomodulating Drugs
94. Risk of Skin Cancer Among Patients With Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed cohort study | 2026
Large cohort study found substantially higher ten-year skin-cancer risk among people with CLL, particularly for basal and squamous cell carcinoma.
95. Cancer Risk of Janus Kinase Inhibitors and Other Advanced Therapies in Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Diseases | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Meta-Analysis | 2026
Large network meta-analysis compares malignancy risk across modern immune therapies and finds higher overall cancer estimates for JAK inhibitors than some comparator treatments.
96. Comparison of Cancer Risks Associated With JAK Inhibitors and TNF Inhibitors in Rheumatoid Arthritis | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Systematic Review | 2026
Real-world meta-analysis found a modestly increased nonmelanoma skin-cancer signal among JAK-inhibitor users compared with TNF-inhibitor users, with very low certainty.
97. Sirolimus for Secondary Prevention of Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Kidney Transplant Recipients | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Meta-Analysis | 2026
Randomized-trial synthesis found conversion to sirolimus reduced recurrent cutaneous SCC but treatment discontinuation from adverse effects was more common.
98. Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer Risk With JAK Inhibitors Compared With Interleukin-6 Receptor Inhibitors | Multiple authors | Arthritis & Rheumatology | 2026
National cohort found a possible modest increase in NMSC among JAK-inhibitor users, but confidence intervals included no difference.
99. Skin Cancer and Human Immunodeficiency Virus | Multiple authors | Clinics in Dermatology | 2025
Reviews skin-cancer epidemiology in people living with HIV, including increased SCC, Merkel cell and sebaceous carcinoma occurrence and mixed evidence concerning melanoma.
100. Risk of Malignancies Related to JAK Inhibitors in Rheumatoid Arthritis | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Meta-Analysis | 2025
Reports increased nonmelanoma skin cancer and cutaneous SCC in pooled JAK-inhibitor trial data, while interpretation depends on comparator populations and exposure duration.
101. The Impact of Psoriasis Treatments on the Risk of Skin Cancer | Potestio et al. | Advances in Therapy | 2024
Reviews PUVA, cyclosporine, methotrexate, TNF inhibitors and newer biologics in relation to melanoma and keratinocyte-cancer risk.
102. Cancer Risk in Patients Treated With the JAK Inhibitor Tofacitinib | Multiple authors | Cancers | 2023
Meta-analysis found cancer estimates varied substantially depending on whether tofacitinib was compared with placebo, other biologics, or TNF inhibitors.
103. JAK Inhibitors and the Risk of Malignancy: A Meta-Analysis Across Disease Indications | Multiple authors | Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases | 2023
Finds malignancies uncommon overall but more frequent with JAK inhibitors than TNF inhibitors in pooled randomized and extension-study data.
104. Psoriasis Patients Treated With Methotrexate Have an Increased Risk of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer | Multiple authors | Cureus | 2023
Meta-analysis found higher nonmelanoma skin-cancer occurrence among methotrexate-treated psoriasis patients, though prior therapies and UV exposure can confound comparisons.
105. Carcinogenicity Risk Associated With Tacrolimus Use in Kidney Transplant Recipients | Multiple authors | Translational Cancer Research | 2022
Meta-analysis examines malignancy and skin-cancer occurrence under tacrolimus-based kidney-transplant immunosuppression.
106. Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Patients With Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia | Multiple authors | International Journal of Dermatology | 2021
Systematic review concludes that CLL is associated with clinically important SCC burden and with more adverse outcomes than generally seen in immunocompetent populations.
107. Factors Associated With Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Among Patients With Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed study | 2020
Identifies previous skin cancer, CLL prognostic characteristics and inherited SCC susceptibility variants as independent predictors of SCC in people with CLL.
108. Risk of Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer for Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients Receiving TNF Antagonists | Multiple authors | Clinical Rheumatology | 2020
Meta-analysis found TNF-antagonist exposure associated with a modest increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer, driven principally by SCC.
109. Risk of Skin Cancers in Thiopurine-Treated and Untreated Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed meta-analysis | 2018
Meta-analysis found thiopurine exposure associated with higher overall and nonmelanoma skin-cancer risk, while the melanoma association did not reach statistical significance.
110. Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer Risk in Patients With IBD Undergoing Thiopurine Therapy | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed systematic review | 2018
Reviews evidence that nonmelanoma skin-cancer risk increases with thiopurine exposure and may be related to duration of treatment.
111. Risk of Cancer in Patients With Psoriasis on Biological Therapies | Multiple authors | British Journal of Dermatology | 2018
Systematic review found the clearest biologic-treatment signal for nonmelanoma skin cancer, particularly SCC, while melanoma evidence was not conclusive.
112. Risk of Lymphoma, Colorectal and Skin Cancer in Patients With IBD Treated With Immunomodulators and Biologics | Kopylov et al. | Inflammatory Bowel Diseases | 2015
Canadian database study found long-duration thiopurine treatment associated with increased nonmelanoma skin-cancer risk while melanoma findings were less clear.
113. Sirolimus Effects on Cancer Incidence After Kidney Transplantation | Multiple authors | Cancer Medicine | 2015
Meta-analysis found sirolimus-based regimens associated with substantially lower nonmelanoma skin-cancer incidence than alternative transplant immunosuppression.
114. Inflammatory Bowel Disease Is Associated With an Increased Risk of Melanoma | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed meta-analysis | 2014
Meta-analysis found melanoma incidence modestly elevated among people with inflammatory bowel disease, including both Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis populations.
115. Association Between Thiopurine Use and Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed meta-analysis | 2014
Meta-analysis reports a modest but significant elevation in nonmelanoma skin-cancer risk among thiopurine-treated IBD patients.
116. Risk of Cancer in Psoriasis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | Pouplard et al. | Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology | 2013
Reports increased SCC and BCC occurrence among psoriasis populations, with PUVA, ciclosporin and possibly methotrexate contributing to observed risk.
117. Risk of Melanoma and Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer Among Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease | Long et al. | Gastroenterology | 2012
Reports increased melanoma and nonmelanoma skin-cancer incidence in IBD and associations between biologic therapy and melanoma and between thiopurines and nonmelanoma skin cancer.
118. Sirolimus and Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer Prevention After Kidney Transplantation | Multiple authors | Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention | 2012
Randomized-trial meta-analysis found sirolimus-based immunosuppression reduced SCC, BCC, and overall nonmelanoma skin-cancer occurrence.
119. Malignancies Associated With Tumour Necrosis Factor Inhibitors | Multiple authors | Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases | 2011
Systematic review found TNF inhibitor-treated populations had increased nonmelanoma skin-cancer incidence in pooled observational studies, while melanoma estimates were less precise.
120. Maintenance Immunosuppression With Target-of-Rapamycin Inhibitors Is Associated With a Reduced Incidence of De Novo Malignancies | Multiple authors | Transplantation | 2005
Observational transplant data found lower malignancy incidence among patients receiving sirolimus or everolimus compared with calcineurin-inhibitor regimens.
Medications and Photosensitization
121. Antihypertensive Medications and Risk of Melanoma and Keratinocyte Carcinomas | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed systematic review and meta-analysis | 2024
Reviews dozens of studies and reports small associations for several antihypertensive classes while rating the underlying evidence as low or very low quality.
122. The Use of Specific Antihypertensive Medication and Skin Cancer Risk | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed systematic review and meta-analysis | 2023
Analysis of more than 16 million participants found small associations for some drug classes but highlights confounding by sun exposure and other risk factors.
123. Hydrochlorothiazide Use Is Associated With the Risk of Cutaneous and Lip Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed systematic review and meta-analysis | 2022
Meta-analysis supports an association between hydrochlorothiazide exposure and cutaneous and lip SCC, including stronger associations with greater cumulative exposure.
124. Associations of Thiazide Use With Skin Cancers | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed systematic review and meta-analysis | 2022
Finds hydrochlorothiazide associated with modestly higher keratinocyte-cancer and melanoma risks in some populations, while other thiazide-like drugs showed different risk profiles.
125. Photosensitizing Medications and Skin Cancer: A Comprehensive Review | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed review | 2021
Reviews epidemiological evidence involving antihypertensives, statins, antimicrobials, amiodarone and other photosensitizing drugs, stressing that evidence strength varies substantially between medications.
126. Hydrochlorothiazide Use and Risk of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer | Pedersen et al. | Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology | 2018
Danish nationwide study found dose-dependent associations between cumulative hydrochlorothiazide exposure and BCC and particularly SCC.
127. Anti-Hypertensive Drugs and Skin Cancer Risk | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed meta-analysis | 2018
Reviews epidemiological evidence for melanoma and keratinocyte cancers among users of thiazides, calcium-channel blockers, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, and angiotensin-receptor blockers.
128. Photosensitizing Antihypertensive Drug Use and Risk of Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Multiple authors | British Journal of Dermatology | 2018
Cohort study found increased SCC incidence among users of photosensitizing antihypertensive medications, with risk rising with greater prescription exposure.
129. Photosensitizing Medication Use and Risk of Skin Cancer | Multiple authors | Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | 2010
Danish population study evaluated numerous photosensitizing medications and found increased risks for certain drugs and skin-cancer subtypes, while many drug associations were absent.
Radiation, Chemicals and Infectious Factors
130. Association Between β-Genus Human Papillomavirus and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed meta-analysis | 2016
Meta-analysis of immunocompetent individuals found beta-genus HPV infection associated with increased cutaneous SCC risk, including significant associations for several individual HPV types.
131. Drinking Water Arsenic Contamination, Skin Lesions, and Malignancies | Karagas et al. | Current Environmental Health Reports | 2015
Systematic review summarizes evidence linking chronic arsenic exposure in drinking water with skin lesions, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma.
132. Radiation-Related Risk of Basal Cell Carcinoma: Childhood Cancer Survivor Study | Multiple authors | Journal of the National Cancer Institute | 2012
Demonstrates a dose-related association between therapeutic ionizing radiation received during childhood cancer treatment and later BCC at irradiated skin sites.
133. Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer in Patients Treated With PUVA Five to Ten Years After First Treatment | Stern and Lange | Journal of Investigative Dermatology | 1988
Long-term PUVA cohort found a strong relationship between cumulative psoralen-UVA treatment and subsequent squamous cell carcinoma.
Albinism, Congenital Nevi and Severe Pigmentation Deficiency
134. Skin Cancer and Actinic Keratosis in People With Albinism | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Systematic Review | 2026
Meta-analysis estimates a substantial prevalence of actinic keratosis and skin cancer among people with albinism across available observational studies.
135. Skin Cancers in People With Albinism: An Overview and Review of Literature | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Review | 2025
Reviews the major skin-cancer burden associated with albinism, particularly SCC in high-UV regions of Africa.
136. Familial Atypical Multiple Mole and Melanoma Syndrome | Multiple authors | StatPearls | 2025
Reviews FAMMM syndrome, numerous atypical nevi, CDKN2A and related mutations, and the markedly increased lifetime susceptibility to melanoma.
137. Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer and HPV in Persons With Albinism | Multiple authors | British Journal of Cancer | 2025
Discusses the hypothesis that beta-HPV infection may interact with intense UV exposure to contribute to nonmelanoma skin carcinogenesis in people with albinism.
138. Prevalence, Incidence Density and Standardized Morbidity Rate of Melanoma Among Patients With Congenital Melanocytic Naevi | Multiple authors | Clinical and Experimental Dermatology | 2024
Systematic review quantifies melanoma occurrence in congenital melanocytic nevi and confirms greater risk in patients with large lesions.
139. Risk of Melanoma in Congenital Melanocytic Nevi of All Sizes | Scard et al. | Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology | 2023
Systematic review found melanoma risk rises substantially with large and giant congenital melanocytic nevi compared with smaller lesions.
140. Prevalence of Squamous and Basal Cell Carcinomas in African Albino Skin Cancer Lesions | Onyishi and Ohayi | Dermatology Research and Practice | 2022
Meta-analysis identifies SCC as the predominant reported keratinocyte cancer among African people with albinism.
141. Cutaneous Cancers in Nigerian Albinos: A Review of 22 Cases | Multiple authors | Nigerian Medical Journal | 2018
Case series highlights young-age presentation and frequently advanced cutaneous malignancies among Nigerian patients with albinism.
142. Common Malignant Cutaneous Conditions Among Albinos in Kenya | Multiple authors | Medical Journal of Zambia | 2017
Study of Kenyan patients documents actinic keratoses, BCC and SCC on UV-exposed body sites and emphasizes equatorial sunlight as a major risk.
143. Oculocutaneous Albinism in Sub-Saharan Africa: Adverse Sun-Associated Health Effects and Photoprotection | Multiple authors | Photochemistry and Photobiology | 2015
Reviews extreme UV sensitivity and skin-cancer susceptibility among people with oculocutaneous albinism in high-UV African environments.
144. Histological Review of Skin Cancers in African Albinos | Kiprono, Chaula and Beltraminelli | BMC Cancer | 2014
Tanzanian series documents substantial SCC and BCC burdens in people with albinism living under intense equatorial ultraviolet exposure.
145. Large Congenital Melanocytic Nevi: Therapeutic Management and Melanoma Risk | Vourc'h-Jourdain, Martin and Barbarot | Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology | 2013
Systematic review documents melanoma particularly among people with very large congenital nevi and numerous satellite lesions.
146. Melanoma Risk in Congenital Melanocytic Naevi: A Systematic Review | Multiple authors | British Journal of Dermatology | 2006
Finds melanoma risk strongly dependent on congenital-nevus size, with the greatest risk associated with very large lesions.
147. Albinism in Africa as a Public Health Issue | Hong, Zeeb and Repacholi | BMC Public Health | 2006
Reviews lack of protective melanin, extreme sun sensitivity and the resulting skin-cancer burden in African populations with albinism.
148. Risk of Melanoma Arising in Large Congenital Melanocytic Nevi | Multiple authors | Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery | 2004
Review found markedly elevated relative melanoma incidence among patients with large congenital melanocytic nevi compared with population expectations.
149. Skin Cancer in African Albinos | Yakubu and Mabogunje | Acta Oncologica | 1993
Reports SCC as the most common cutaneous malignancy in African patients with albinism, especially on chronically sun-exposed head and neck sites.
150. Albinism and Skin Cancer in Southern Africa | Multiple authors | Clinical and Experimental Dermatology | 1989
Reports increasing skin-cancer occurrence with age among people with albinism and identifies intense ultraviolet exposure as a major contributor.
Chronic Inflammation, Wounds and Scars
151. Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Arising in Discoid Lupus Erythematosus | Lazarowitz et al. | Journal of Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery | 2026
Systematic review and meta-analysis examines malignant transformation to SCC within chronically inflamed and scarred discoid lupus lesions.
152. Hidradenitis Suppurativa-Associated Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Systematic Review | 2026
Reviews clinical, molecular, and risk-factor patterns in reported HS-associated SCC, particularly longstanding severe disease in male patients.
153. Characteristics, Management, and Outcomes of Cutaneous Malignancies Arising Within Discoid Lupus Erythematosus | Shojaei et al. | Journal of Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery | 2026
Systematic review examines cutaneous cancers developing in chronic discoid lupus lesions and the role of scarring, inflammation, and photosensitivity.
154. Pooled Oncological Outcomes in Marjolin's Ulcer | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Systematic Review | 2026
Meta-analysis examines skin cancers arising from chronic wounds, scars, and burns and reinforces the malignant potential of longstanding injured tissue.
155. Risk of Cancer in Patients With Hidradenitis Suppurativa | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Meta-Analysis | 2026
Evaluates cancer occurrence among HS populations compared with general populations, including the recognized association with cutaneous SCC.
156. Characteristics and Prognosis of Skin Cancer Arising From Burn Scars | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Systematic Review | 2026
Synthesizes evidence on malignant transformation of burn scars, most commonly into aggressive cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma.
157. Hidradenitis Suppurativa Cancer Risk: A Review of the Literature | Martora et al. | Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology | 2025
Reviews evidence linking severe longstanding hidradenitis suppurativa with SCC, particularly in chronically inflamed gluteal and anogenital lesions.
158. Management of Hidradenitis Suppurativa in Special Populations | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Narrative Review | 2025
Discusses chronic inflammation and the increased SCC concern associated with longstanding severe hidradenitis lesions.
159. Characteristics and Outcomes of Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Other Cutaneous Malignancies in Epidermolysis Bullosa | Multiple authors | Advances in Skin & Wound Care | 2023
Systematic review documents the exceptionally important SCC complication of inherited epidermolysis bullosa and its often aggressive clinical behavior.
160. Hidradenitis Suppurativa and Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Multiple authors | Advances in Dermatology and Allergology | 2023
Systematic review evaluates published HS-associated SCC cases and potential clinical risk factors for malignant transformation.
161. Squamous Cell Carcinoma Arising Within Hidradenitis Suppurativa: A Literature Review | Sachdeva et al. | International Journal of Dermatology | 2021
Review finds SCC typically develops after decades of severe HS and often arises in gluteal, perianal, genital, or perineal disease.
162. Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Patients With Hidradenitis Suppurativa | Racanelli et al. | Cancers | 2021
Individual-patient-data review examines demographic and disease characteristics associated with SCC development and poor outcomes in hidradenitis suppurativa.
163. Systematic Review of Modern Case Series of Squamous Cell Cancer Arising in a Chronic Ulcer | Abdi, Yan and Hanna | JCO Global Oncology | 2020
Reviews Marjolin ulcers, with most cancers arising after decades of chronic wounds or burn scars and most having SCC histology.
164. The Risk of Developing Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Patients With Anogenital Lichen Sclerosus | Multiple authors | Gynecologic Oncology | 2020
Systematic review confirms a measurable SCC risk in longstanding anogenital lichen sclerosus, particularly among older women and those with associated neoplasia.
165. Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Complicating Hidradenitis Suppurativa | Multiple authors | International Wound Journal | 2018
Reviews SCC arising in longstanding hidradenitis suppurativa and discusses chronic inflammation, scarring, smoking, and HPV as potential contributors.
166. Discoid Lupus Erythematosus as It Relates to Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Photosensitivity | Multiple authors | Lupus | 2013
Reviews UV sensitivity, chronic cutaneous inflammation and the uncommon but recognized development of SCC in discoid lupus lesions.
Vitamin D and Melanoma Risk Research
167. Vitamin D and Melanoma: An Umbrella Meta-Analysis of Serum Levels, Dietary Intake, and VDR Polymorphisms | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Meta-Analysis | 2026
Reassesses vitamin D intake, circulating concentrations, and vitamin D receptor genetic variants, highlighting persistent uncertainty about their contribution to melanoma risk.
168. Malignant Melanoma: Vitamin D Status as a Risk and Prognostic Factor | Multiple authors | Anticancer Research | 2025
Meta-analyses report associations between lower vitamin D levels and melanoma occurrence or unfavorable tumor characteristics but cannot establish causality.
169. Vitamin D and Cutaneous Melanoma Risk: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses | Multiple authors | Photobiomodulation, Photomedicine, and Laser Surgery | 2024
Finds inconsistent evidence relating dietary vitamin D, blood vitamin D levels, vitamin D receptor polymorphisms, and melanoma development.
170. Vitamin D Insufficiency and Serum Levels Related to the Incidence and Stage of Cutaneous Melanoma | Multiple authors | Melanoma Research | 2023
Meta-analysis found an association between vitamin D insufficiency and melanoma incidence and greater Breslow thickness, while other outcomes were inconsistent.
171. Dietary Vitamin D Intake and Serum Levels and Risk or Prognostic Factors for Melanoma | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed Systematic Review | 2022
Reviews studies linking vitamin D exposure and serum levels with melanoma incidence and tumor characteristics and finds heterogeneous results.
172. The Association Between Serum Vitamin D Level and Risk and Prognosis of Melanoma | Tsai, Kuo and Huang | Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology | 2020
Meta-analysis found vitamin D deficiency more common among melanoma patients and associated with adverse prognostic indicators, but does not establish deficiency as a causal risk factor.
Diet, Coffee and Phototoxic Foods
173. Association Between Citrus Consumption and Melanoma Risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study | Melough et al. | Nutrition and Cancer | 2021
Large prospective analysis found no statistically significant overall association between total citrus consumption and melanoma after adjustment for potential confounders.
174. The Association Between Citrus Consumption and Melanoma Risk in the UK Biobank | Multiple authors | British Journal of Dermatology | 2021
UK Biobank analysis found higher melanoma prevalence among participants reporting high citrus intake, supporting further research into dietary furocoumarins and UV interaction.
175. Caffeinated Coffee Consumption and Health Outcomes in the US Population | Multiple authors | Journal of Nutrition | 2021
Dose-response analysis reported inverse associations between caffeinated coffee consumption and melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancer among several examined outcomes.
176. Citrus Intake and Risk of Skin Cancer in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition Cohort | Multiple authors | European Journal of Nutrition | 2020
EPIC cohort reported modest positive associations between citrus consumption and several skin-cancer categories, requiring confirmation with better control of UV exposure.
177. Caffeinated and Decaffeinated Coffee Consumption and Melanoma Risk | Multiple authors | European Journal of Nutrition | 2018
Dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohorts found a small inverse association between total coffee intake and melanoma risk.
178. Coffee, Tea and Caffeine Intake and the Risk of Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer | Caini et al. | European Journal of Nutrition | 2017
Meta-analysis found caffeinated coffee and caffeine inversely associated mainly with basal cell carcinoma, while evidence for tea was inconclusive.
179. Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Cutaneous Melanoma: A Meta-Analysis | Wang, Li and Zhang | European Journal of Nutrition | 2016
Reports a modest inverse association between coffee consumption and melanoma, particularly for caffeinated coffee, but observational evidence cannot establish a protective effect.
180. Higher Caffeinated Coffee Intake Is Associated With Reduced Malignant Melanoma Risk | Liu et al. | PLOS ONE | 2016
Meta-analysis found higher caffeinated coffee intake associated with lower melanoma incidence while decaffeinated coffee showed no significant association.
181. Coffee Consumption and Melanoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies | Multiple authors | Nutrition and Cancer | 2016
Reports lower observed melanoma incidence among regular coffee drinkers but notes limitations inherent to observational dietary research.
182. Caffeine Intake, Coffee Consumption, and Risk of Cutaneous Malignant Melanoma | Wu et al. | Epidemiology | 2015
Three large prospective cohorts found higher caffeine and caffeinated-coffee intake associated with lower melanoma incidence, particularly at chronically sun-exposed sites.
183. Citrus Consumption and Risk of Cutaneous Malignant Melanoma | Wu et al. | Journal of Clinical Oncology | 2015
Prospective cohorts found greater citrus consumption, especially grapefruit, associated with higher melanoma incidence, although residual confounding and phototoxic mechanisms require further study.
184. Coffee Drinking and Cutaneous Melanoma Risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study | Loftfield et al. | Journal of the National Cancer Institute | 2015
Large prospective cohort found high caffeinated coffee consumption associated with a modest reduction in melanoma incidence.
Associated Conditions and Emerging Risk Research
185. Unraveling the Controversy: Exploring the Link Between Sex Hormones and Skin Cancers | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed systematic review and meta-analysis | 2025
Reviews oral contraceptives, hormone-replacement therapy, menopausal hormone therapy, reproductive characteristics, melanoma, and nonmelanoma skin cancer, reporting small associations that warrant further investigation.
186. Risk of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers and Parkinson's Disease | Multiple authors | Cancers | 2021
Systematic review found a modest increase in nonmelanoma skin cancers among people with Parkinson disease, driven largely by an observed increase in basal cell carcinoma.
187. Alcohol, Alcoholic Beverages, and Melanoma Risk | Gandini et al. | European Journal of Nutrition | 2018
Meta-analysis found a modest association between greater alcohol consumption and melanoma incidence but cautions that residual confounding, including differences in sun exposure, cannot be excluded.
188. The Association Between Parkinson's Disease and Melanoma | Multiple authors | PubMed-indexed systematic review and meta-analysis | 2015
Meta-analysis found melanoma more common among people with Parkinson disease, although the biological basis of the association remains uncertain.
Risk Prediction and Multiple Primary Melanoma
189. Multiple Primary and Familial Melanoma as Distinct High-Risk Phenotypes | Carugno et al. | Frontiers in Oncology | 2026
Compares familial and multiple-primary melanoma phenotypes, finding familial disease characterized by earlier onset while multiple primaries were associated with age and male sex.
190. A Risk Prediction Tool for Invasive Melanoma | Multiple authors | JAMA Dermatology | 2025
Prospective QSkin model incorporates age, sex, ancestry, nevi, freckles, hair color, tanning ability, sunburn, family history, actinic damage and prior skin cancer.
191. Development and External Validation of a Melanoma Risk Prediction Model Based on Self-Assessed Risk Factors | Multiple authors | JAMA Dermatology | 2016
Validated model uses hair color, nevus density, family history, previous keratinocyte cancer and lifetime sunbed exposure to estimate melanoma risk.
192. Inherited Genetic Variants Associated With Occurrence of Multiple Primary Melanoma | Multiple authors | Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | 2015
International GEM Study links variants near TERT/CLPTM1L, TYRP1, MTAP, TYR, MX2 and other loci with susceptibility to developing multiple primary melanomas.
193. Risk Prediction Models for Incident Primary Cutaneous Melanoma | Usher-Smith et al. | Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | 2014
Systematic review finds nevus number, skin type, freckling, age, hair color and sunburn history among the most commonly used melanoma-prediction variables.
194. Identifying Persons at Highest Risk of Melanoma Using Self-Assessed Risk Factors | Multiple authors | Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dermatology Research | 2012
Risk score combines age, sex, hair color, freckles, severe childhood sunburns, arm moles and previous nonmelanoma skin cancer.
195. Nevi, Family History, and Fair Skin Increase the Risk of Second Primary Melanoma | Multiple authors | Journal of Investigative Dermatology | 2011
Long-term Queensland cohort found second melanomas associated with high nevus count, familial melanoma, fair skin, poor tanning ability and male sex.
196. Risk Factors in a Cohort of Patients With Multiple Primary Melanoma | Multiple authors | Australasian Journal of Dermatology | 2011
Reports high frequencies of family melanoma history and dysplastic nevi among patients who develop multiple separate primary melanomas.
197. Multiple Primary Melanoma: The Impact of Atypical Naevi and Follow Up | de Giorgi et al. | British Journal of Dermatology | 2010
Evaluates atypical nevi, mole burden, family history, phototype and follow-up as indicators of subsequent melanoma risk.
198. Clinicopathological Features of and Risk Factors for Multiple Primary Melanomas | Ferrone et al. | JAMA Dermatology / Archives of Dermatology | 2005
Large patient series found family history and dysplastic nevi strongly associated with subsequent primary melanomas.
199. Risk Factors and Individual Probabilities of Melanoma for Whites | Cho et al. | Journal of Clinical Oncology | 2005
Prospective studies identify older age, male sex, family history, numerous nevi, severe sunburns and light hair as independent melanoma predictors.
200. Multiple Primary Melanoma: Incidence and Risk Factors in 283 Patients | Multiple authors | Surgery | 1993
Finds increased subsequent-melanoma risk with family history, male sex, lighter complexion and a history of other cancer.
