Christian Nationalism and Public Health
Christian Nationalism and Public Health
Christian nationalism and public health is an area of research examining how beliefs linking Christianity with American national identity relate to attitudes toward public-health institutions, scientific authority, vaccination, government health policy, reproductive care, and other health-related issues. The research summarized in this collection generally distinguishes Christian nationalism from Christianity or religious participation itself. Several studies find that religious commitment and Christian-nationalist ideology can have different, and sometimes opposite, relationships with health behavior and trust in public institutions.
The subject received increased scholarly attention during the COVID-19 pandemic, when disputes over vaccination, masking, restrictions on religious gatherings, scientific authority, and individual liberty created opportunities to study the interaction between religion, political ideology, national identity, and public health.
The research also extends well beyond COVID-19. Studies and policy reports examine Christian nationalism in relation to childhood vaccination, health-care financing, abortion, disability, mental health, LGBTQ+ policy, trust in science, conspiracy beliefs, and broader questions of health equity.
COVID-19 and Public-Health Behavior
COVID-19 became one of the most extensively studied intersections between Christian nationalism and public health.
Research by Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead, Joshua B. Grubbs, and other scholars found associations between Christian-nationalist beliefs and reduced adherence to some recommended pandemic precautions. Studies examined behaviors such as masking, social distancing, vaccination, and attitudes toward government restrictions.
One influential study, Culture Wars and COVID-19 Conduct, distinguished Christian nationalism from religious commitment. The researchers reported that Christian nationalism was associated with more incautious pandemic behavior, while religious commitment itself was associated with greater observance of some preventive behaviors.
Other research examined opposition to pandemic restrictions. Christian-nationalist beliefs were associated in some studies with greater emphasis on individual liberty, economic activity, and resistance to government intervention during the pandemic.
Historical and qualitative analyses also described conflicts in which public-health requirements were framed as challenges to religious freedom, constitutional liberty, or national identity. These conflicts were particularly visible in disputes over church closures, capacity restrictions, masking requirements, and vaccine mandates.
At the same time, the collected sources show that religious communities did not respond uniformly. Many congregations cooperated with public-health authorities, shifted temporarily to remote worship, adopted preventive measures, or participated directly in vaccination and health-education campaigns.
Vaccination and Vaccine Hesitancy
Vaccination is one of the strongest recurring themes in the literature.
Research published before and during the COVID-19 pandemic found associations between Christian nationalism and several forms of vaccine skepticism. These included lower confidence in vaccine safety, distrust of pharmaceutical companies and medical authorities, opposition to vaccination requirements, and lower reported willingness to receive COVID-19 vaccines.
A nationally representative study by Bernard D. DiGregorio, Katie E. Corcoran, and Christopher P. Scheitle examined Christian nationalism and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and uptake. The study reported that stronger Christian-nationalist beliefs were associated with lower vaccine confidence and lower likelihood of vaccination.
Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry similarly examined Christian nationalism and anti-vaccine attitudes in How Culture Wars Delay Herd Immunity. Their research found associations between Christian nationalism and distrust of vaccines, doctors, pharmaceutical companies, and childhood vaccine requirements.
Other studies suggest that religious belief alone does not adequately explain vaccine resistance. Political ideology, distrust of health institutions, community norms, beliefs about divine intervention, and broader cultural attitudes may independently affect vaccine behavior.
This distinction is important because some research also shows that religious identity can be used constructively in public-health communication. Experimental studies found that messages emphasizing shared Christian identity, trusted clergy, or religious values such as caring for one's neighbor could increase trust in medical experts, vaccination intentions, or acceptance of masking among some Christian populations.
Religious Exemptions and Childhood Vaccination
The collection includes extensive background on religious exemptions from vaccination requirements.
Religious and philosophical exemptions to school vaccination requirements predate contemporary Christian nationalism and have been the subject of public-health and constitutional debate for decades. Research has examined the relationship between exemptions and outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases, particularly measles.
Earlier epidemiological work found higher risks of vaccine-preventable disease in populations with higher exemption rates. Legal scholarship has examined the competing principles of religious freedom, parental authority, individual autonomy, and the state's responsibility to prevent infectious disease.
Recent legal debates have focused on how Free Exercise jurisprudence applies to vaccination mandates and whether governments must recognize religious or conscience-based exemptions under particular circumstances.
The uploaded sources therefore place contemporary Christian-nationalist attitudes toward vaccination within a longer history of conflict over compulsory vaccination and religious liberty.
Christian Nationalism and Scientific Authority
Another major theme is trust in science.
Research by Joseph O. Baker, Samuel L. Perry, and Andrew L. Whitehead found that Christian nationalism was associated with opposition to scientific authority. Their work interpreted this relationship partly as a conflict over cultural and moral authority rather than simply disagreement about individual scientific facts.
More recent research distinguishes between accepting scientific information and trusting scientists or scientific institutions. Christopher P. Scheitle, Katie E. Corcoran, and Bernard D. DiGregorio found Christian nationalism to be particularly associated with lower institutional trust in scientists.
This distinction suggests that disputes involving public health may not always result from rejection of scientific evidence itself. They may instead involve questions about who is considered a legitimate authority, whether scientific institutions are perceived as culturally hostile, and whether government agencies are trusted to make decisions affecting personal or religious life.
Broader public-opinion research also documents declining trust in scientists and medical experts among portions of the U.S. population following the COVID-19 pandemic.
Conspiracy Beliefs and Medical Distrust
Research has also examined connections among Christian nationalism, biblical literalism, conspiracy beliefs, and distrust of institutions.
Brooklyn Walker and Abigail Vegter found that Christian nationalism and biblical literalism were independently associated with generalized conspiracy thinking. Other studies have examined relationships among political orientation, fundamentalist religion, distrust of health-care institutions, and attitudes toward newer technologies such as mRNA vaccines.
These findings do not indicate that Christian religious belief itself necessarily produces conspiracy thinking. Rather, the research attempts to identify how particular combinations of ideology, institutional distrust, political identity, and religious worldview may shape perceptions of scientific and medical authority.
Faith Communities as Public-Health Partners
The research also documents extensive cooperation between public-health agencies and religious organizations.
During the COVID-19 vaccination campaign, state and territorial health departments frequently partnered with churches and other faith-based organizations. Religious institutions helped distribute health information, host vaccination clinics, identify trusted community messengers, and reach populations that were difficult for government agencies to contact directly.
Studies of communication strategies suggest that clergy and physicians can sometimes reinforce one another's credibility. Among some religious populations, recommendations from pastors or messages framed in familiar religious language have improved acceptance of vaccination or other preventive behaviors.
Systematic reviews of faith-based public-health initiatives show that religious organizations have participated in programs involving vaccination, cancer screening, genetics education, chronic disease prevention, and other health interventions.
These findings demonstrate that religion can function both as a source of conflict with public-health institutions and as an important resource for health promotion.
Religious Liberty and Public-Health Authority
Public health has long raised constitutional questions about the limits of government authority.
The 1905 Supreme Court case Jacobson v. Massachusetts became a foundational precedent concerning compulsory vaccination and state public-health powers. During COVID-19, however, disputes increasingly centered on the Free Exercise Clause and whether restrictions treated religious organizations differently from comparable secular activities.
Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo became an important pandemic-era case concerning capacity restrictions on religious worship.
Legal scholarship in the collection examines how pandemic restrictions, vaccine mandates, religious exemptions, and changing constitutional doctrine interact. These debates involve competing concerns: protecting population health, preventing discrimination against religious exercise, preserving individual liberty, and determining when emergency health powers are justified.
Christian-nationalist rhetoric sometimes entered these disputes by connecting opposition to health restrictions with broader claims about religious freedom, constitutional identity, and the country's Christian heritage.
Health-Care Policy and Government Responsibility
Research has begun to examine Christian nationalism in relation to broader health-care policy.
A study titled Would a Christian Nation Have Universal Healthcare? Evidence from the General Social Survey found that stronger Christian-nationalist beliefs were associated with greater opposition to government assistance for medical expenses, even after accounting for other political and religious characteristics.
This research raises questions about how competing ideas of individual responsibility, government responsibility, charity, and social welfare influence health policy.
The sources also demonstrate that Christian approaches to health policy are diverse. Religious traditions have historically supported a range of positions concerning universal coverage, poverty, medical access, abortion, and public assistance.
For this reason, research on Christian nationalism generally distinguishes the ideology from Christianity as a whole.
Reproductive Health and Abortion
Reproductive health represents another major area of overlap between religion, politics, and public health.
Recent research has investigated relationships between Christian nationalism and attitudes toward abortion policy. Studies have examined support for abortion restrictions, legal penalties, and government enforcement as well as differences in attitudes depending on circumstances such as rape, fetal abnormalities, or risks to a pregnant woman's health.
Public Religion Research Institute surveys have also compared abortion attitudes among people categorized according to levels of Christian-nationalist belief.
The broader collection includes research on reproductive care within religiously affiliated health systems. Catholic hospitals and other religious institutions may restrict services including abortion, sterilization, contraception, or fertility treatment according to religious ethical directives.
Studies of patients and physicians have examined how these restrictions affect referrals, medical decision-making, disclosure, and access to reproductive care.
These subjects overlap with wider public-health concerns such as maternal mortality, contraception, insurance coverage, geographic access to reproductive services, and health disparities.
LGBTQ+ Health and Policy
The uploaded research includes broader public-health literature concerning LGBTQ+ populations and policy environments.
Studies have examined how state policies, insurance rules, marriage law, discrimination protections, and access to transgender-related medical care correlate with mental and physical health outcomes.
These sources provide health-policy context for examining political movements, including Christian nationalism, that may support or oppose particular policies affecting LGBTQ+ populations.
The material emphasizes that health outcomes are influenced not only by individual medical care but also by laws, insurance coverage, discrimination, social conditions, and access to services.
Mental Health
Research by Laura Upenieks directly examined Christian nationalism and psychological well-being.
One national survey study found that stronger Christian-nationalist beliefs were associated with higher reported symptoms of depression and anxiety.
Subsequent research examined religious struggles as a possible mechanism connecting Christian-nationalist beliefs with emotional distress. Feelings of anger, spiritual conflict, perceived social threat, or difficulty reconciling religious expectations with changing social conditions may contribute to these associations.
These studies identify correlations rather than demonstrating that Christian nationalism alone causes mental-health problems. Mental health is shaped by numerous personal, social, economic, religious, and environmental factors.
Disability and Health Equity
Recent research has extended the study of Christian nationalism to attitudes toward disability.
A study on Christian nationalism and ableism found associations between Christian-nationalist beliefs and views that people with disabilities receive excessive accommodation or public assistance.
The broader health-equity literature provides context for understanding why such attitudes may matter. People with disabilities can experience barriers involving employment, health-care access, transportation, education, income, and social participation.
Federal disability law and public-health initiatives seek to reduce these barriers and improve access to health services.
Social Determinants of Health
Many of the health outcomes discussed in the source collection cannot be explained solely by religion or ideology.
Public-health organizations including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, World Health Organization, National Institutes of Health, and Healthy People 2030 emphasize the importance of social determinants of health.
These include economic stability, education, housing, neighborhood conditions, environmental exposures, access to medical care, discrimination, and social relationships.
The National Academies has similarly described structural and institutional conditions as important contributors to health inequity.
This broader framework is useful when interpreting research on Christian nationalism because political beliefs may influence preferences about government spending, public assistance, health insurance, regulation, disability accommodation, reproductive services, and other policies affecting the social determinants of health.
Distinguishing Christianity From Christian Nationalism
A recurring theme across the collection is the importance of distinguishing Christian nationalism from Christian religious belief.
Christian nationalism generally refers to an ideology linking Christianity with national identity and the proper organization of American political and social life. It is not synonymous with being Christian, evangelical, politically conservative, patriotic, or religiously observant.
Several studies cited in the collection find different relationships between Christian nationalism and ordinary religious participation.
During the pandemic, for example, Christian-nationalist beliefs were associated in some studies with less cautious behavior, while religious commitment itself was sometimes associated with greater observance of health precautions.
Similarly, Christian churches and religious organizations have played major roles in vaccination drives, health education, hospitals, charitable medicine, disaster relief, mental-health support, and public-health outreach.
This distinction prevents findings about Christian nationalism from being incorrectly generalized to Christianity or religious people as a whole.
Limits of the Research
Much of the empirical research summarized here is observational and based on survey data. Associations between Christian nationalism and health attitudes therefore do not by themselves establish direct causation.
Christian nationalism also overlaps statistically with political ideology, race, region, education, religious tradition, media consumption, and other social characteristics. Researchers generally attempt to account for these factors, but no statistical model can isolate every possible influence.
Definitions and measurements of Christian nationalism also vary. Many studies use survey questions concerning whether the United States should be declared a Christian nation, whether government should advocate Christian values, or whether American identity is connected to Christianity.
Health behavior may also change over time. COVID-19 occurred during an unusually polarized political environment, making it uncertain whether all findings from the pandemic will apply equally to future public-health emergencies.
Finally, the research repeatedly shows substantial diversity among religious communities. Evangelical Christians, Catholics, mainline Protestants, Black Protestants, other Christian traditions, and religiously unaffiliated Americans cannot be treated as internally uniform populations.
Conclusion
Research on Christian nationalism and public health describes a complex relationship among religion, national identity, political ideology, institutional trust, individual liberty, and government authority.
The COVID-19 pandemic made these tensions particularly visible. Studies associated Christian nationalism with resistance to some pandemic precautions, lower vaccine confidence, opposition to certain government restrictions, and distrust of scientific authority.
However, the same research landscape also demonstrates that religion itself is not necessarily a barrier to public health. Religious organizations have frequently worked with government agencies, medical professionals, and community organizations to encourage vaccination, distribute health information, provide medical services, and reach populations that might otherwise distrust public institutions.
Beyond the pandemic, research connects Christian nationalism with debates concerning universal health coverage, abortion, reproductive medicine, disability, mental health, LGBTQ+ policy, childhood vaccination, and health equity.
Taken together, the literature suggests that understanding public-health conflict requires distinguishing religious faith from political ideology, examining institutional trust as well as factual beliefs, and recognizing that faith communities can function both as sites of political disagreement and as important partners in improving population health.
Public Opinion and Christian Nationalism
1. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 17, 2026
Mapping Christian Nationalism Across the 50 States. Includes national and state-level findings on Christian-nationalist identification and attitudes toward mandatory childhood vaccination.
2. | PRRI | Public Religion Research Institute | 2026
Research archive covering Christian nationalism alongside abortion, LGBTQ issues, religion, political identity, and other policy areas with public-health implications.
3. | Bob Smietana | The Washington Post | May 19, 2023
What Is Christian Nationalism Anyway? Useful definitional background distinguishing Christian nationalism from Christianity, patriotism, evangelicalism, and ordinary political participation.
4. | Brookings Institution and PRRI | Brookings Institution | February 8, 2023
Presentation of national survey research on Christian nationalism, authoritarianism, race, gender, political identity, and social institutions.
5. | Paul D. Miller | Christianity Today | February 3, 2021
Christian publication's explanation of Christian nationalism and its distinction from patriotism and Christianity, useful for interpreting health-policy research without conflating religious identity with nationalist ideology.
COVID-19, Masks, and Pandemic Behavior
6. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | November 29, 2022
Global analysis documents both religious resistance to COVID restrictions and extensive cooperation between religious communities and public-health authorities.
7. | Brittany Acors | Studies in Church History / Cambridge University Press | June 8, 2022
Masks vs. God and Country: The Conflict between Public Health and Christian Nationalism. Examines conflict between public-health authority and Christian-nationalist understandings of religious and individual liberty during COVID-19, including opposition to masking and distancing requirements.
8. | Various Authors | PLOS ONE | 2022
Examines civic associations and ideological diversity as influences on mask wearing and social-distancing attitudes among partisan and religious subgroups.
9. | Various Authors | Systematic Review | 2022
Outbreaks of COVID-19 in Indoor Places of Worship. Reviews reported outbreaks linked to churches, mosques, synagogues, and temples and the role of preventive measures.
10. | Various Authors | Journal of Religion and Health | 2022
Transmission Analysis of COVID-19 Outbreaks Associated with Places of Worship, Arkansas. Examines thousands of reported cases and numerous clusters associated with in-person worship.
11. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | September 15, 2021
Provides public-opinion context on pandemic restrictions, vaccination, political identity, and lower vaccination levels among some religious groups.
12. | Jack Jenkins | Religion News Service | September 14, 2021
Post-Trump, Christian Nationalists Preach a Theology of Vaccine Resistance. Reports on rallies where Christian-nationalist rhetoric became intertwined with opposition to vaccines, masking, and COVID-19 restrictions.
13. | Jack Jenkins | The Washington Post | September 14, 2021
Reports on Christian-nationalist activists who connected opposition to COVID-19 vaccines and mask mandates with claims about religious and constitutional liberty.
14. | Jack Jenkins | Religion News Service | September 14, 2021
The Gospel of Sherri Tenpenny: COVID-19 Misinformation Meets Christian Nationalism. Examines the intersection of anti-vaccine misinformation, Christian-nationalist rhetoric, and conspiracy narratives.
15. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | January 27, 2021
Examines how the pandemic affected religious faith in the United States and other countries, including particularly strong reported effects among white evangelical Protestants.
Save the Economy, Liberty, and Yourself: Christian Nationalism and Americans’ Views on Government COVID-19 Restrictions. Finds Christian nationalism strongly associated with prioritizing individual liberty and the economy when evaluating pandemic restrictions.
17. | Phil Zuckerman | Psychology Today | December 10, 2020
COVID-19 and Christian Nationalism. Discusses religiously framed resistance to masking, scientific information, and other public-health practices during the pandemic.
18. | CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | October 29, 2020
Considerations for Communities of Faith. Federal public-health guidance on reducing COVID-19 transmission while recognizing the importance of religious worship and First Amendment protections.
Culture Wars and COVID-19 Conduct: Christian Nationalism, Religiosity, and Americans’ Behavior During the Coronavirus Pandemic. National survey analysis finds Christian nationalism associated with more incautious pandemic behavior and fewer precautionary behaviors, while religious commitment itself was associated with more precautions.
20. | Peter McLaren | Postdigital Science and Education | May 19, 2020
Religious Nationalism and the Coronavirus Pandemic. Critical analysis examining religious nationalism, American exceptionalism, political media, and conflict with secular scientific authority during COVID-19.
21. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | August 7, 2020
Surveys how U.S. congregations handled closures, distancing, masks, capacity restrictions, and remote worship during the pandemic.
Vaccination, Vaccine Hesitancy, and Exemptions
22. | Various Authors | PLOS ONE / PubMed | September 2026
Religious Beliefs and Practices, Political Orientation, and Distrust in Healthcare Predict Attitudes Toward mRNA Vaccines in the United States. Finds that fundamentalism, political orientation, health-care distrust, and religious community attitudes contribute independently to views of mRNA vaccination.
23. | Zalman Rothschild | Harvard Law Review Forum | May 2026
Vaccines, Religious Liberty, and the GVR as Doctrinal Signal. Examines recent Supreme Court developments involving vaccine mandates and Free Exercise doctrine.
24. | Matthew Loftus | Christianity Today | May 18, 2026
Reviews scholarship on religion and vaccine hesitancy while questioning overly broad claims that evangelical Christianity itself is the primary cause of anti-vaccine attitudes.
25. | Various Authors | STAT | March 6, 2026
Examines religious exemptions and vaccine hesitancy in Amish communities, illustrating why public-health researchers distinguish between religion, community norms, institutional distrust, and political ideology.
26. | Daniel Orogun | Journal of Religion and Health | January 19, 2026
Anti-COVID-19 Vaccine Narratives Among African and North American Neo-Pentecostals. Examines religious narratives surrounding vaccine opposition and lessons for public-health engagement.
27. | U.S. Department of Health and Human Services | HHS | September 4, 2025
HHS Reinforces Religious and Conscience Exemptions from Childhood Vaccine Mandates. Federal policy statement concerning state exemptions and the Vaccines for Children program.
28. | Y. Tony Yang, Robert S. Olick, and Jana Shaw | JAMA Pediatrics | August 28, 2023
Religious Exemptions, Public Health, and School Vaccination Requirements. Reviews legal and public-health arguments concerning religious exemptions from school vaccination mandates.
29. | Cary Funk and Alec Tyson | Pew Research Center | May 16, 2023
What Americans Think About the MMR Vaccines. Finds declining support for school vaccination requirements among white evangelical Protestants while also documenting continued broad confidence in the benefits of MMR vaccination.
30. | Ilias Trispiotis | Oxford Journal of Law and Religion | January 4, 2023
Mandatory Vaccinations, Religious Freedom, and Discrimination. Develops a human-rights framework for evaluating mandatory vaccination and claims for religious exemptions.
31. | Justin Nortey | Pew Research Center | March 31, 2022
Americans Skeptical About Religious Objections to COVID-19 Vaccines, but Oppose Employer Mandates. Examines attitudes toward religious exemptions among white evangelical Protestants and other Americans.
32. | Barbara Pfeffer Billauer | Catholic University Law Review | 2022
Religious Freedom vs. Compelled Vaccination. Uses the 2018–2019 measles epidemic to examine law as a public-health intervention.
33. | Various Authors | American University Law Review | 2022
Analysis of vaccine mandates, religious exemptions, and changes in Free Exercise jurisprudence during the COVID-19 pandemic.
God Will Protect Us: Belief in God/Higher Power's Ability to Intervene and COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake. Examines whether concepts of divine intervention help explain relationships between Christian nationalism and vaccination.
Between Healthcare Practitioners and Clergy: Evangelicals and COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy. Studies health beliefs and faith-based influences affecting vaccine uptake among evangelicals.
36. | Various Authors | Journal of Religion and Health | 2022
A Shot of Faith—Analyzing Vaccine Hesitancy in Certain Religious Communities in the United States. Discusses religious, political, and ideological factors behind vaccine hesitancy and strategies for faith-based outreach.
37. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | February 9, 2022
Increasing Public Criticism, Confusion Over COVID-19 Response in U.S. Reports continued religious and partisan differences in vaccination and attitudes toward the pandemic response.
38. | Nathan Chapman | University of Chicago Law Review | March 2, 2022
When Are Vaccine Mandates Constitutional? Discusses constitutional doctrine governing vaccination, public health, and religious-liberty claims.
39. | Joanne Silberner | STAT | January 7, 2022
Pushback to Covid-19 Vaccines Remains Stubbornly High Among White Evangelicals. Reviews research, polling, and faith-based efforts aimed at improving vaccine uptake.
40. | Bernard D. DiGregorio, Katie E. Corcoran, and Christopher P. Scheitle | Vaccine | October 29, 2021
Christian Nationalism and COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Uptake. A nationally representative study finds Christian nationalism associated with lower vaccine confidence and lower likelihood of vaccination.
41. | West Virginia University | WVU Today | October 19, 2021
Summarizes WVU research finding relationships among Christian nationalism, COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy, political conservatism, and skepticism toward scientific institutions.
42. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | October 15, 2021
Examines congregants' trust in clergy, public-health officials, and religious leaders as sources of COVID-19 vaccine advice.
43. | Michael Lipka | Pew Research Center | September 20, 2021
10 Facts About Americans and Coronavirus Vaccines. Documents substantial differences in COVID-19 vaccination rates among American religious groups.
44. | PRRI and Interfaith Youth Core | Public Religion Research Institute | July 27, 2021
Follow-up national survey tracking vaccination among religious groups and measuring whether faith-based interventions influenced vaccine uptake.
45. | Kim Bellware and Drea Cornejo | The Washington Post | June 18, 2021
Examines the persistent vaccination gap among white evangelicals and attempts by pastors and medical professionals to address mistrust and misinformation.
46. | Matthew Avery Sutton | The Washington Post | May 21, 2021
Historical analysis argues that evangelical vaccine resistance emerged through an intersection of theology, politics, distrust, and apocalyptic interpretation.
47. | Tibisay Zea and Frances Stead Sellers | The Washington Post | May 4, 2021
Reports on vaccine hesitancy among Latino evangelicals and the challenges faced by pastors and public-health officials trying to counter misinformation.
48. | PRRI and Interfaith Youth Core | Public Religion Research Institute | April 22, 2021
Religious Identities and the Race Against the Virus. Large survey of religion and COVID-19 vaccine acceptance, including religious beliefs, political identity, trust, and faith-based outreach.
49. | John Yang and Saher Khan | PBS NewsHour | April 8, 2021
Interview exploring reasons for COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among white evangelicals and distinguishing theological objections from broader social distrust.
50. | PBS NewsHour | PBS | April 8, 2021
Video and transcript examining evangelical vaccine hesitancy and efforts by religious leaders to encourage vaccination.
51. | Monique Deal Barlow | The Conversation / Patheos | April 2, 2021
Christian Nationalism Is a Barrier to Mass Vaccination Against COVID-19. Reviews evidence connecting Christian nationalism with vaccine resistance and discusses efforts by religious leaders to encourage vaccination.
52. | Various Authors | Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | 2021
Persuading US White Evangelicals to Vaccinate for COVID-19. Experimental research tests messages intended to increase vaccine acceptance within a vaccine-hesitant religious population.
Religious Identity Cues Increase Vaccination Intentions and Trust in Medical Experts Among American Christians. Tests whether shared religious identity can increase trust in medical information.
54. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Socius | December 7, 2020
How Culture Wars Delay Herd Immunity: Christian Nationalism and Anti-vaccine Attitudes. Finds Christian nationalism among the strongest predictors of several forms of vaccine skepticism.
55. | Aleksandra Sandstrom | Pew Research Center | June 28, 2019
Amid Measles Outbreak, New York Closes Religious Exemption for Vaccinations. Reviews state religious-exemption laws during the 2019 measles outbreak.
56. | Brian Kennedy | Pew Research Center | February 7, 2017
Majorities in All Major Religious Groups Support Requiring Childhood Vaccination. Provides useful historical comparison of attitudes toward vaccination across evangelical, mainline Protestant, Catholic, Black Protestant, and unaffiliated Americans.
57. | Cary Funk and Becka Alper | Pew Research Center | October 22, 2015
Mixed Role of Religion in Americans' Views on Biomedical and Food Issues. Examines religion and attitudes toward childhood vaccination, genetic engineering, biomedical research, and related scientific questions.
58. | Douglas S. Diekema | Annual Review of Public Health | March 18, 2014
Personal Belief Exemptions From School Vaccination Requirements. Reviews the history, law, epidemiological consequences, and policy effects of religious and philosophical vaccine exemptions.
59. | Douglas S. Diekema | American Journal of Public Health | 2002
Religious and Philosophical Exemptions From Vaccination Requirements and Lessons Learned From Conscientious Objectors From Conscription. Examines constitutional and public-health approaches to nonmedical vaccine exemptions.
60. | Daniel A. Salmon et al. | JAMA | July 7, 1999
Health Consequences of Religious and Philosophical Exemptions From Immunization Laws. Landmark epidemiological study examining measles risks associated with vaccination exemptions.
61. | Timothy J. Aspinwall | Loyola University Chicago Law Journal / PubMed | 1997
Religious Exemptions to Childhood Immunization Statutes. Explores competing claims involving freedom of religion, parental authority, disease prevention, and public health.
Religious Liberty, Law, and Public-Health Authority
62. | Various Authors | American Journal of Public Health | July 9, 2026
Conservatives Belong in Public Health. Argues that rebuilding public-health trust requires engagement with conservative communities, religious organizations, family structures, local decision-making, and ideological pluralism.
63. | Ryan Houser and Andrés Constantin | American Journal of Law & Medicine | 2023
COVID-19, Religious Freedom and the Law: The United States' Case. Reviews legal conflicts between pandemic-control measures and constitutional claims involving religious exercise.
64. | Various Authors | Journal of Religion and Health | 2022
Are Christians Morally Obligated to Be Vaccinated for COVID-19? Presents a Christian-ethics argument supporting vaccination and public-health responsibility.
65. | Various Authors | American Journal of Public Health | 2022
A Rapid Survey of State and Territorial Public Health Partnerships With Faith-Based Organizations to Promote COVID-19 Vaccination. Finds widespread collaboration between health agencies and religious organizations.
66. | U.S. Supreme Court | Supreme Court of the United States | November 25, 2020
Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo. Major pandemic-era Free Exercise decision concerning capacity restrictions on religious worship.
67. | U.S. Supreme Court | Justia | February 20, 1905
Jacobson v. Massachusetts. Foundational U.S. Supreme Court case concerning compulsory vaccination and state public-health police powers.
Science, Medical Authority, and Conspiracy Beliefs
68. | Christopher P. Scheitle, Katie E. Corcoran, and Bernard D. DiGregorio | Religions | July 19, 2025
Questions of Truth vs. Questions of Trust. Finds Christian nationalism particularly associated with lower trust in science and scientists, while distinguishing this from religiosity itself.
69. | Brooklyn Walker and Abigail Vegter | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | May 8, 2023
Christ, Country, and Conspiracies? Christian Nationalism, Biblical Literalism, and Belief in Conspiracy Theories. Finds both Christian nationalism and biblical literalism independently associated with conspiracy thinking.
70. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | February 15, 2022
Documents declining confidence in scientists and medical scientists following the pandemic, providing institutional context for Christian-nationalism research.
71. | Joseph O. Baker, Samuel L. Perry, and Andrew L. Whitehead | Sociological Forum | August 6, 2020
Crusading for Moral Authority: Christian Nationalism and Opposition to Science. Finds Christian nationalism independently associated with skepticism toward scientific authority.
Crusading for Moral Authority. Discusses research connecting Christian nationalism with opposition to scientific authority.
73. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | May 21, 2020
Tracks political differences in trust toward medical scientists during the early COVID-19 pandemic.
74. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | August 2, 2019
Examines trust in scientists and medical researchers, useful background for interpreting Christian-nationalism research concerning scientific authority.
75. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | October 22, 2015
Science and Religion: A View From the Public. Provides broader evidence about perceived conflict between science and religion among American religious groups.
Faith Communities as Public-Health Partners
76. | Henry Nuss et al. | Journal of Primary Care & Community Health | March 28, 2026
Faith and Flu: Evaluating the Role of Faith-Based Outreach and Trusted Messengers in Promoting Vaccination Among Older Black Adults. Finds recommendations from physicians and pastors associated with vaccination.
77. | Various Authors | BMC Public Health | 2025
Approaches to Engaging Faith Communities in Public Health Efforts Regarding Vaccination, Genetics, and Colorectal Cancer. Systematic review of nearly one hundred faith-community public-health projects.
78. | Various Authors | American Journal of Preventive Medicine | 2025
Religious Service Attendance, COVID-19 Vaccine Attitudes, and COVID-19 Vaccination Status. Examines service attendance, booster hesitancy, CDC trust, and opportunities for renewed partnerships with faith communities.
79. | Heidi Christensen et al. | American Journal of Public Health | March 2022
A Rapid Survey of State and Territorial Public Health Partnerships With Faith-Based Organizations to Promote COVID-19 Vaccination. Finds substantial collaboration between health agencies and religious organizations.
80. | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | CDC | 2020s
Federal public-health resources describe ways faith-based organizations can participate in health education, prevention, and community outreach.
81. | U.S. Department of Health and Human Services | HHS | 2020s
HHS Center for Faith-Based and Neighborhood Partnerships provides institutional context for government collaboration with religious organizations on public-health initiatives.
Health-Care Policy and Provision
82. | Atsuko Kawakami, Daniel Lehman, and Edward Poplawski | Sociological Inquiry | November 14, 2025
Would a Christian Nation Have Universal Healthcare? Evidence from the General Social Survey. Finds Christian-nationalist ideology associated with greater opposition to government assistance for medical bills after controlling for other political and religious factors.
83. | Ryan A. Crowley et al. | Annals of Internal Medicine | January 21, 2020
Envisioning a Better U.S. Health Care System for All: Coverage and Cost of Care. Provides policy background on universal coverage and affordability relevant to debates about Christian nationalism and health-care responsibility.
Research collection on health-care affordability, insurance, medical debt, and government health programs provides background for assessing ideological attitudes toward government-assisted medical care.
Research on Medicaid eligibility, coverage, and policy provides context for debates over collective versus individual responsibility for health-care access.
86. | M. V. Angrosino | Medical Anthropology Quarterly | March 1996
The Catholic Church and U.S. Health Care Reform. Historical background on how organized religion interacts with national health-policy debates.
87. | J. T. McHugh | Journal of Medicine and Philosophy | October 1994
Health Care Reform and Abortion: A Catholic Moral Perspective. Illustrates an alternative Christian policy tradition that supports universal health coverage while opposing abortion, useful for distinguishing Christian nationalism from Christianity generally.
Disability and Health Equity
88. | Various Authors | Social Problems | 2025
Christian Nationalism and Ableism in the United States. National survey research finds Christian nationalism associated with attitudes that people with disabilities receive excessive accommodation or assistance.
89. | U.S. Department of Justice | ADA.gov | 2026
Federal resources on disability rights and the Americans with Disabilities Act provide legal context for evaluating public attitudes toward disability inclusion.
90. | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | CDC | 2026
Public-health resources describe health disparities, access barriers, and health outcomes affecting people with disabilities.
91. | National Institutes of Health | NIH | 2020s
Provides background on health disparities and unequal health outcomes affecting populations facing structural barriers.
92. | U.S. Department of Health and Human Services | Healthy People 2030 | 2020s
Defines health equity as a central public-health objective and provides benchmarks against which ideological approaches to public policy can be evaluated.
Mental Health
93. | Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration | SAMHSA | 2026
National mental-health resources provide contextual data for assessing population-level mental-health outcomes.
94. | National Institute of Mental Health | NIH | 2026
National mental-health prevalence statistics useful for placing research on Christian nationalism and psychological distress in population context.
95. | Laura Upenieks | Social Science Quarterly | December 7, 2023
Christian Nationalism, Religious Struggles, and the Structural Amplification of Emotional Distress. Connects Christian-nationalist beliefs with religious struggles, anger, and psychological distress.
96. | Laura Upenieks | Socius | February 25, 2022
Do Beliefs in Christian Nationalism Predict Mental Health Problems? Finds stronger Christian-nationalist beliefs associated with higher depression and anxiety in national survey data.
97. | American Psychological Association | APA | 2020s
Reviews social and structural determinants contributing to mental- and physical-health disparities.
Reproductive and Maternal Health
98. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | July 2026
Examines the diversity of abortion views within American Christianity and emphasizes that Christian nationalism and Christian religious identity are not synonymous.
99. | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | CDC | 2026
National surveillance resources on maternal mortality provide public-health context for examining reproductive-health policy effects.
100. | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | CDC | 2026
Federal information on reproductive-health outcomes, pregnancy, contraception, infertility, and maternal health.
101. | KFF | KFF | 2026
Research collection covering abortion, contraception, maternal health, reproductive-health insurance, and state policy.
102. | Guttmacher Institute | Guttmacher Institute | 2026
Research and data on abortion availability, state restrictions, patient demographics, and reproductive-health policy.
103. | Cristina Melissa Pimenta | Florida Atlantic University | 2026
The Intersection of Religion & Politics in the United States. Dissertation includes analysis of Christian nationalism and reproductive-rights policy at federal and state levels.
104. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | April 23, 2026
State-level analysis shows substantial differences in abortion views among Christian-nationalism Adherents, Sympathizers, Skeptics, and Rejecters.
105. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | February 17, 2026
Views on Abortion by Religious Identification. Provides current comparisons across white evangelical Protestant, mainline Protestant, Catholic, Black Protestant, and unaffiliated populations.
106. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | 2026
Public Opinion on Abortion. Tracks abortion attitudes by religion, political affiliation, demographics, and time.
107. | Various Authors | The Sociological Quarterly | December 22, 2025
Deciding for Her: Religio-Political Conservatism, Christian Nationalism, and Public Opposition to Legal Abortion Across Circumstances. Studies how Christian nationalism mediates opposition to legal abortion under different circumstances.
108. | Samuel L. Perry et al. | Social Problems | June 28, 2025
Anti-Abortion and Pro-Coercion: White Christian Nationalism and Support for Arresting Women Who Have Abortions. Examines Christian nationalism, abortion attitudes, race, and support for punitive abortion enforcement.
109. | Brooklyn Walker and Paul A. Djupe | Religion in Public | April 22, 2025
Examines experimental evidence on Christian-nationalist attitudes toward proposed constitutional amendments concerning abortion.
110. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | 2025
Updates the relationship among abortion attitudes, religious participation, state differences, and Christian-nationalist identification.
111. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | 2025
Full report from the American Values Atlas on abortion opinions, religious affiliation, religious participation, and Christian nationalism.
112. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | May 2024
Reports a strong relationship between state-level Christian-nationalism scores and public attitudes toward abortion legality.
113. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | May 2, 2024
Summarizes survey findings showing substantial differences in abortion attitudes across PRRI's Christian-nationalism categories.
114. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | 2024
Detailed national and state findings on Christian nationalism, abortion legality, and access to medication abortion.
115. | Commonwealth Fund | Commonwealth Fund | 2024
Research on insurance coverage and women's access to health services provides policy context for debates involving religious exemptions and reproductive care.
116. | Melissa Deckman et al. | Social Science Quarterly | January 19, 2023
Abortion, Religion, and Racial Resentment. Examines evangelical identity, religion, racial attitudes, and abortion policy preferences.
117. | Lee A. Hasselbacher et al. | Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | July 2020
My Hands Are Tied. Examines how religiously affiliated health systems affect clinicians' ability to provide abortion-related care.
118. | Lori R. Freedman et al. | Contraception | 2020
Restrictions on Reproductive Care at Catholic Hospitals: A Qualitative Study of Patient Experiences and Perspectives. Studies how religious restrictions affect patient choices and access to reproductive care.
119. | Various Authors | Women's Health Issues | 2019
Managing Religion and Morality Within the Abortion Experience. Qualitative research on religion, stigma, morality, and women's experiences obtaining abortions.
120. | Amy Adamczyk and Margrét Valdimarsdóttir | Social Science Research | 2018
Understanding Americans' Abortion Attitudes: The Role of the Local Religious Context. Provides background on how local religious environments shape abortion opinions and availability of abortion clinics.
121. | Debra B. Stulberg et al. | American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | 2018
Religious Hospital Policies on Reproductive Care: What Do Patients Want to Know? Finds patients often want clearer disclosure about religious restrictions before selecting a hospital.
Referrals for Services Prohibited in Catholic Health Care Facilities. Examines physician referral practices when religious rules prohibit contraception, sterilization, abortion, or fertility treatment.
123. | Various Authors | Contraception | June 2015
How Does Religious Affiliation Affect Women's Attitudes Toward Reproductive Health Policy? National survey examines religious affiliation, contraception, abortion, and Affordable Care Act coverage requirements.
124. | Michael J. DeBoer | Journal of Law and Health | 2015
The Contraceptive Coverage Mandate, Religious Freedom, and Public Health Policy and Ethics. Examines ACA contraceptive requirements through legal, religious-liberty, and public-health frameworks.
LGBTQ+ Health and Policy
125. | KFF | KFF | 2026
Research collection covering LGBTQ health access, insurance, discrimination, HIV prevention, and gender-affirming care.
126. | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | CDC | 2026
Public-health data concerning health disparities affecting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and other sexual- and gender-minority populations.
127. | American Academy of Nursing Experts | Nursing Outlook | 2025
Advancing Human Rights, Health Equity, and Equitable Health Policy with LGBTQ+ People. Discusses how theology, political ideology, and policy can influence LGBTQ+ health outcomes and health equity.
128. | Various Authors | Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law | 2025
LGBTQ+ Health, Policy, and Politics. Reviews changes in marriage law, insurance, transgender-inclusive coverage, health research, and political policy environments.
129. | Various Authors | Social Science & Medicine | 2025
State-Level LGBTQ+ Policies and Health. Finds relationships between state policy environments and self-reported mental and physical health among LGBTQ+ populations.
Health Equity and Social Determinants
130. | U.S. Department of Health and Human Services | Healthy People 2030 | 2026
National objectives concerning vaccination, health equity, medical access, mental health, reproductive health, and social determinants provide benchmarks for evaluating public-health policy.
131. | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | CDC | 2026
Explains how economic stability, education, health-care access, neighborhood conditions, and social environments contribute to health outcomes.
132. | World Health Organization | WHO | 2026
International overview of social determinants of health provides comparative context for ideological debates emphasizing individual versus collective responsibility for health.
133. | National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine | National Academies Press | 2017
Communities in Action: Pathways to Health Equity. Reviews structural determinants of health and community approaches to reducing health disparities.
134. | National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine | National Academies Press | 2017
The Root Causes of Health Inequity. Reviews structural, social, economic, institutional, and political factors contributing to unequal health outcomes.
