Christian Nationalism and Political Polarization
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Core Scholarship and Definitions
1. | Nilay Saiya | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | 2025
Christian Nationalism and Violence Against Religious Minorities in the United States. Uses state-level data to examine associations between Christian nationalist political rhetoric and violence against religious minorities.
2. | Abigail Vegter, Andrew R. Lewis and Cammie Jo Bolin | Politics and Religion | January 26, 2023
Which Civil Religion? Partisanship, Christian Nationalism, and the Dimensions of Civil Religion in the United States. Finds that American civil religion itself is divided along partisan lines rather than functioning simply as a unifying force.
3. | Miles T. Armaly, David T. Buckley and Adam M. Enders | Political Behavior | 2022
Christian Nationalism and Political Violence. Open-access version detailing how identity threat and conspiracy beliefs condition the relationship between Christian nationalism and support for political violence.
4. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | March 19, 2020
A House Dividing. Introduces Christian nationalism as a fusion of Christianity and American civic identity and argues that it is important for understanding polarization in contemporary American political discourse.
5. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Sociological Perspectives | 2015
A More Perfect Union? Christian Nationalism and Support for Same-Sex Unions. Finds strong associations between Christian nationalist beliefs and opposition to same-sex marriage and civil unions.
6. | Irfan Nooruddin, Allyson Shortle and Eric McDaniel | Ohio State University Mershon Center | n.d.
God's Nation: Religious Nationalism in Contemporary American Politics. Applies social-identity theory to understand how Christian nationalist conceptions of American identity influence attitudes toward immigrants and political outsiders.
National Surveys and Partisan Divides
7. | Pew Research Center | May 14, 2026
10% of U.S. Adults Express a Favorable View of Christian Nationalism, 31% Unfavorable. Tracks changing public opinion as awareness of the term grows.
8. | Pew Research Center | March 15, 2024
U.S. Presidential Candidates and Their Religious Engagement. Examines how Americans evaluate political leaders' religiosity and representation of religious interests.
9. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 8, 2023
A Christian Nation? Major survey examining Christian nationalism, partisanship, pluralism, race, immigration, gender, and democratic attitudes.
10. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 8, 2023
Survey: Two-Thirds of White Evangelicals, Most Republicans Sympathetic to Christian Nationalism. Summarizes major partisan and religious differences found in PRRI's national research.
11. | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
Religion in Public Life. Examines partisan differences over church political activity and whether biblical principles should influence U.S. law.
12. | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
Religion and the Supreme Court. Studies perceptions of whether the Supreme Court favors religious Americans and how those perceptions vary across political and religious groups.
13. | Public Religion Research Institute | PRRI | Updated 2026
Christian Nationalism Research Collection. Central archive for PRRI polling and analysis tracking the political, demographic, religious, and geographic dimensions of Christian nationalism.
Partisan Sorting and Religious Polarization
14. | Jesse Smith | Religious Studies Review | September 2026
On Christian Nationalism. Reviews contemporary Christian-nationalism scholarship while placing it within the broader phenomena of partisan sorting, affective polarization, religious change, and conservative identity politics.
15. | Chip Rotolo and Gregory A. Smith | Pew Research Center | May 14, 2026
How Americans Feel About Religion's Influence in Government and Public Life. Documents large Republican-Democratic differences over religion in government, biblical influence on law, church-state separation, and Christian nationalism.
16. | Jesse Smith | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | December 26, 2025
Partisan and Racial Sorting of Christian Nationalism, 1996–2022: Backlash and Counter Backlash on the (White) Secular Left and Religious Right. Longitudinal analysis finds growing partisan divergence in Christian-nationalist attitudes, particularly among white Americans, with especially large declines among Democrats after 2014.
17. | Samuel L. Perry | Politics and Religion | October 2, 2024
Which Political Entities Are “Friendly” to Religion? Finds that Christian nationalism and partisan identity jointly shape perceptions of the Democratic Party, Republican Party, and Supreme Court.
18. | Chip Rotolo, Gregory A. Smith and Jonathan Evans | Pew Research Center | March 15, 2024
Christianity's Place in Politics, and Christian Nationalism. Details partisan divisions regarding biblical law, Christian moral values, an officially Christian nation, and separation of church and state.
19. | Pew Research Center | March 15, 2024
8 in 10 Americans Say Religion Is Losing Influence in Public Life. Reports widening perceptions of cultural conflict and substantial differences between Republicans and Democrats concerning religion's appropriate political role.
20. | Abigail Vegter, Andrew R. Lewis and Cammie Jo Bolin | Politics and Religion | January 26, 2023
Which Civil Religion? Partisanship, Christian Nationalism, and the Dimensions of Civil Religion in the United States. Finds that even ostensibly shared American civil-religious ideas are increasingly interpreted through partisan lenses.
21. | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
Views of the U.S. as a Christian Nation and Opinions About Christian Nationalism. Finds pronounced differences among Democrats, Republicans, religiously unaffiliated Americans, and Christian groups concerning the term Christian nationalism.
22. | Samuel L. Perry | Annual Review of Sociology | February 14, 2022
American Religion in the Era of Increasing Polarization. Reviews evidence that religion remains deeply intertwined with partisan, racial, ideological, and cultural polarization in the United States, including the growing importance of Christian nationalism.
23. | Kedron Bardwell | Politics and Religion Journal | 2021
Trump, Christian Nationalism, and Issue Polarization: The Attitudes and Activism of Iowa Clergy in the 2020 Caucuses. Survey of Iowa clergy examines Christian nationalism alongside polarized attitudes toward immigration, racial justice, health care, candidates, and political activism.
Elections, Partisanship, and Political Identity
24. | David E. Campbell and Geoffrey C. Layman | Politics and Religion | July 13, 2026
Christian Nationalism, Backlash, and Polarization. Provides evidence that Christian nationalism can contribute to polarization not only by mobilizing supporters but also by provoking religious and partisan distancing among opponents.
Christian Nationalism as a Social Identity. Examines Christian nationalism not only as a worldview but as an emerging political and social identity capable of reinforcing group boundaries.
26. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 17, 2026
New 50-State Survey Finds Majority of Republicans Qualify as Christian Nationalism Supporters. Provides updated national and state-level data on partisan differences.
27. | Amy Brooke Grauley | Political Behavior | September 29, 2025
“We Should All Be Christian Nationalists”: Elite Influence on Identification with Christian Nationalism. Experimental evidence shows that political elite rhetoric can influence whether Americans embrace the Christian nationalist label.
28. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Nations and Nationalism | June 3, 2025
Christian Nationalism and the Vote for Donald Trump in the 2024 Presidential Election. State-level analysis finds Christian nationalism associated with variation in Trump vote share even after accounting for other political and demographic factors.
29. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | October 30, 2024
Resistance to Christian Nationalism in All 50 States. Maps both support and opposition and demonstrates the geographic, partisan, and religious structure of the divide.
A Christian Nation? National survey connects Christian-nationalist attitudes with partisan affiliation, Trump support, cultural attitudes, immigration, race, and democratic beliefs.
31. | Politics and Religion | Cambridge University Press | 2020s
Christian Nationalism and Political Identity. Research in this literature examines how explicitly Christian descriptions of national belonging interact with partisan and racial identities.
32. | Brookings Institution | Brookings | 2020s
White Evangelicals, Trump, and Christian Nationalism. Analysis places evangelical Republican alignment within longer-term transformations of religion and partisan identity.
33. | Andrew L. Whitehead, Samuel L. Perry and Joseph O. Baker | Socius | 2018
Make America Christian Again. Examines the role of perceived Christian heritage and national identity in the political coalition supporting Trump.
Affective Polarization and Social Identity
34. | Pew Research Center | August 9, 2022
As Partisan Hostility Grows, Signs of Frustration With the Two-Party System. Documents extensive negative sentiment toward opposing-party voters and political institutions.
35. | Eli J. Finkel et al. | Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | October 2020
Political Sectarianism in America. Describes a combination of othering, aversion, and moralization that makes political opponents appear threatening or morally illegitimate.
36. | Political Science Research | Cambridge University Press | 2020s
Mega-Identity and Political Polarization. Research examines how race, religion, geography, ideology, and party can merge into increasingly comprehensive political identities.
The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States. Reviews evidence on increasing dislike and distrust between opposing partisan groups.
38. | Lilliana Mason | University of Chicago Press | 2018
Uncivil Agreement: How Politics Became Our Identity. Explains how overlapping partisan, racial, religious, ideological, and geographic identities intensify emotional polarization.
39. | Pew Research Center | June 22, 2016
Partisanship and Political Animosity in 2016. Finds increasingly unfavorable and fearful perceptions of opposing political parties.
40. | Lilliana Mason | American Journal of Political Science | 2015
“I Disrespectfully Agree”: The Differential Effects of Partisan Sorting on Social and Issue Polarization. Finds that alignment of partisan and social identities can intensify hostility even without equivalent increases in policy disagreement.
41. | Shanto Iyengar and Sean J. Westwood | Science | 2015
Fear and Loathing Across Party Lines. Finds partisan discrimination can rival or exceed other forms of social-group bias in experimental settings.
42. | Pew Research Center | June 12, 2014
Political Polarization in the American Public. Landmark report documents increasing ideological consistency and negative attitudes toward members of the opposing political party.
43. | Shanto Iyengar, Gaurav Sood and Yphtach Lelkes | American Political Science Review | 2012
Affect, Not Ideology: A Social Identity Perspective on Polarization. Shows increasing emotional hostility between Democratic and Republican identifiers.
Race, National Identity, and Group Boundaries
44. | Brooklyn Walker et al. | Perspectives on Politics | October 14, 2025
Religion Is Sometimes Raced: Christian Nationalism as In-Group Protection. Uses group-threat and social-identity approaches to examine relationships among Christian nationalism, race, and political attitudes.
45. | Joshua B. Grubbs et al. | Public Opinion Quarterly | May 13, 2025
White or Woke Christian Nationalists? Demonstrates that relationships between Christian nationalism and political identity differ across racial groups rather than operating identically throughout the electorate.
46. | Brookings Institution | Brookings | 2024
White Christian Nationalism and American Politics. Analysis examines connections among racial identity, Christianity, demographic change, and partisan politics.
47. | Samuel L. Perry and Kenneth E. Frantz | The Sociological Quarterly | July 7, 2023
Our Kind of American: Christian Nationalism, Race, and Contingent Views of Cultural Membership. Finds that relationships between Christian nationalism and exclusion vary by the respondent's racial identity and the particular out-group being evaluated.
48. | Samuel L. Perry | Sociology of Race and Ethnicity | February 3, 2023
Mating Call, Dog Whistle, Trigger: Asymmetric Alignments, Race, and the Use of Reactionary Religious Rhetoric in American Politics. Examines how racialized religious rhetoric, political sorting, and Christian nationalism contribute to partisan mobilization and polarization.
49. | Pew Research Center | February 16, 2021
Faith Among Black Americans. Provides evidence that high levels of Christian religiosity among Black Americans coexist with political orientations markedly different from white evangelical Protestant politics.
50. | PRRI | Public Religion Research Institute | 2020s
Race, Religion, and Political Values. Survey research illustrates how race and religious identity interact with party identification and attitudes toward American identity.
51. | Pew Research Center | October 1, 2018
The Religious Typology. Identifies cross-cutting religious groups whose political attitudes do not map perfectly onto denominational labels.
Make America Christian Again: Christian Nationalism and Voting for Donald Trump in the 2016 Presidential Election. Finds Christian-nationalist beliefs independently associated with voting for Donald Trump after accounting for numerous demographic and attitudinal factors.
53. | Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | Sociology of Race and Ethnicity | 2015
Christian Nationalism and Racial Boundaries. Research connects particular conceptions of Christian America with attitudes about racial hierarchy and national belonging.
Immigration, Cultural Threat, and National Belonging
54. | Christopher H. Seto | Sociology of Religion | May 24, 2026
In God We Trust: Christian Nationalism, Political and Ethno-Racial Identities, and Distrust of Immigrants. Examines how Christian nationalism combines with partisan and racial identities in attitudes toward immigrants.
55. | Pew Research Center | February 15, 2024
How Americans View the Situation at the U.S.-Mexico Border. Documents large partisan differences surrounding immigration and border policy.
56. | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
45% of Americans Say U.S. Should Be a “Christian Nation.” Explores the varied meanings Americans attach to the term and differences between religious and political groups.
57. | Pew Research Center | January 4, 2021
Faith on the Hill. Shows religious representation in Congress differs markedly from the changing religious composition of the broader population.
58. | PRRI | Public Religion Research Institute | 2020s
Immigration and Cultural Change. Surveys relationships among religion, political party, racial attitudes, immigration, and perceptions of cultural displacement.
59. | PRRI | Public Religion Research Institute | 2020s
American Values Survey. Repeated surveys track connections among immigration attitudes, racial identity, religion, and partisan affiliation.
60. | Pew Research Center | July 23, 2019
What Americans Know About Religion. Provides context for public understanding and misunderstanding of religious minorities amid polarized cultural debates.
61. | Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | Socius | 2018
Christian America in Black and White. Examines Christian-nationalist views of national identity and ethno-racial boundaries.
62. | Pew Research Center | 2017
U.S. Muslims Concerned About Their Place in Society. Documents political and religious divisions surrounding Muslim belonging in the United States.
63. | Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead and Joshua B. Grubbs | Sociological Perspectives | 2010s
Christian Nationalism and Immigration. Research finds that conceptions of America as distinctly Christian are frequently associated with more restrictive attitudes toward immigration.
Culture Wars, Identity, and Religious Sorting
64. | Samuel Goldman | The Washington Post | July 10, 2026
Civil Religion as an Alternative Framework. Presents an argument that a shared civil religion could occupy space between Christian nationalism and assertive secular political identity.
65. | The Washington Post | December 31, 2024
A Politically Diverse Church Aims to Stay United in a Polarized Era. Examines the difficulty politically mixed churches face maintaining congregational unity.
66. | A. Brian Leander | Review & Expositor | July 31, 2024
Biblical Reconciliation: Preaching Unity in the Face of Christian Nationalism and Political Schism. Discusses Christian nationalism and ideological polarization within American Christianity.
67. | Franco Iacomini | Christianity Today | July 30, 2024
Christian Nationalism and Polarization in Brazil. Provides a comparative case showing how religious identity can become intertwined with highly polarized electoral politics.
68. | Scott Waller, Darren Patrick Guerra and Tim Milosch | Christianity Today | March 2024
American Democracy Is in Trouble. No, Not Like That. Offers a Christian perspective on democratic institutions, political participation, and the relationship between Christianity and democracy.
69. | Michelle Boorstein | The Washington Post | May 19, 2023
What Is Christian Nationalism Anyway? Surveys competing definitions of Christian nationalism and explains why the term itself has become part of America's culture-war divide.
70. | Paul D. Miller | Christianity Today | March 2023
Christianity Is Not Necessary for Democracy. Challenges claims that American democracy requires continued Christian cultural dominance.
71. | Religion News Service | The Washington Post | June 24, 2022
Poll: Americans' Belief in God Is Dropping. Discusses growing partisan differences in religious belief and possible backlash against the politicization of religion.
Political Organizing and Elite Rhetoric
72. | Ray Kirstein | Religion News Service | September 5, 2026
How Christians Can Defend Democracy Against Christian Nationalism. Interview with Robert P. Jones on Christianity, democratic norms, polarization, and opposition to Christian nationalism.
73. | David Smith | The Guardian | August 26, 2026
A Bible-Sized Blind Spot: Congressman Sounds Alarm on Rising Christian Nationalism. Profiles congressional debate surrounding Christian nationalism and democratic institutions.
74. | Michelle Boorstein | The Washington Post | August 19, 2026
A “Nonbeliever” in Congress Argues New View of Religion Is Gaining Ground on the Hill. Examines political mobilization among secular lawmakers responding to Christian nationalism.
75. | Religion News Service | August 18, 2026
The Only Humanist in Congress on Christian Nationalism, Privilege and Protecting Democracy. Interview presenting a secular critic's interpretation of Christian nationalism and church-state separation.
76. | Religion News Service | March 25, 2026
Christian Nationalism Makes Our Rights Conditional. Commentary examining competing conceptions of citizenship, national identity, religious liberty, and voting rights.
77. | Adam Gabbatt | The Guardian | January 19, 2025
“Reactionary Nihilism”: How a Rightwing Movement Strives to End U.S. Democracy. Interview with Katherine Stewart on Christian nationalism, political networks, wealthy donors, and anti-democratic activism.
78. | William Horne | TIME | October 17, 2024
What Christian Nationalism Looked Like in Practice. Historical discussion linking contemporary debates over Christian nationalism to earlier struggles over race and national identity.
79. | Adrian Horton | The Guardian | April 27, 2024
“Demolishing Democracy”: How Much Danger Does Christian Nationalism Pose? Reviews historical arguments about the organization and political development of the Christian nationalist movement.
80. | Peter Stone | The Guardian | May 1, 2023
Pro-Trump Pastors Rebuked for Overt Embrace of White Christian Nationalism. Reports on efforts to organize conservative pastors politically and criticism from other Christian leaders.
81. | Arwa Mahdawi | The Guardian | December 11, 2021
Radicalized Christian Nationalism Is a Growing Threat to American Democracy. Commentary examining state-level political organizing and Christian nationalist activism.
Conspiracy Beliefs and Information Systems
82. | Brooklyn Walker and Abigail Vegter | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | May 8, 2023
Christ, Country, and Conspiracies? Christian Nationalism, Biblical Literalism, and Belief in Conspiracy Theories. Finds Christian nationalism and biblical literalism independently associated with generalized conspiracy thinking, with particularly strong relationships when both are present.
83. | Miles T. Armaly, David T. Buckley and Adam M. Enders | Political Behavior | January 4, 2022
Christian Nationalism and Political Violence: Victimhood, Racial Identity, Conspiracy, and Support for the Capitol Attacks. Shows that relationships between Christian nationalism and support for January 6 violence depend strongly on perceived victimhood, white identity, and QAnon support.
84. | Miles T. Armaly, David T. Buckley and Adam M. Enders | Political Behavior | January 4, 2022
Christian Nationalism and Political Violence. Publisher version examining the interaction of religious ideology, conspiracy beliefs, racial identity, grievance, and political violence.
85. | PRRI | Public Religion Research Institute | 2021
QAnon, Conspiracy Theories, and Religion. Surveys the demographic, religious, and partisan characteristics associated with QAnon beliefs.
86. | PRRI | Public Religion Research Institute | 2021
The Persistence of QAnon in the Post-Trump Era. Tracks continued adherence to QAnon beliefs and their relationship with political and religious identity.
87. | Joseph M. Uscinski et al. | Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | 2021
Conspiracy Beliefs and Political Identity. Examines how political identities and elite cues shape endorsement of conspiracy theories.
88. | Pew Research Center | September 16, 2020
A Look at Americans Who Believe Coronavirus Conspiracy Theories. Illustrates the strong partisan structure of misinformation beliefs during the COVID-19 era.
89. | Pew Research Center | 2020
News Media and Political Division. Research examines increasingly divergent partisan media environments.
90. | Political Science Research | Cambridge University Press | 2020s
Conspiracy Beliefs and Polarization. Research explores reciprocal relationships between distrust, partisan identity, misinformation, and polarization.
91. | Adam M. Enders and Steven M. Smallpage | Research & Politics | 2018
Polls, Plots, and Party Politics. Examines the partisan distribution of conspiracy beliefs and cautions against assuming conspiracism belongs exclusively to one ideological group.
Political Violence and Democratic Norms
An Army for God: Gun Ownership, Christian Nationalism, and Support for Political Violence. Finds that gun-owner identity can amplify associations between Christian nationalism and willingness to endorse political violence.
93. | Paul A. Djupe and Brooklyn Walker | Politics and Religion | March 26, 2026
The Weakness of Anti-Christian Nationalism. Finds that Christian nationalist attitudes may override more pluralistic values when respondents perceive political or cultural threats.
94. | Nilay Saiya | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | 2025
Christian Nationalism and Violence Against Religious Minorities in the United States. Examines state-level relationships between Christian-nationalist rhetoric and violence targeting religious minorities.
95. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | September 10, 2024
One Leader Under God. Examines relationships among Christian nationalism, authoritarian attitudes, political violence, immigration, gender, and democratic commitments.
96. | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace | September 2023
Polarization, Democracy, and Political Violence. Reviews evidence distinguishing ordinary political polarization from forms more likely to undermine democratic institutions.
97. | Bob Smietana | The Washington Post | January 6, 2023
Who Are the Christian Nationalists? Examines six networks representing different versions of Christian nationalist politics after January 6.
98. | Paul A. Djupe and colleagues | Politics and Religion | 2023
The Ingroup Love and Outgroup Hate of Christian Nationalism. Uses experiments to investigate whether Christian nationalist attitudes affect how Americans believe laws should be applied to favored and disfavored groups.
99. | Laura Barrón-López | PBS NewsHour | October 11, 2022
Concerns Grow Over Increasing Ties Between Christianity and Right-Wing Nationalism. Discusses church-state separation, elections, and the increasing visibility of Christian nationalist rhetoric.
100. | Michelle R. Smith | AP / FRONTLINE | September 7, 2022
Takeaways from the AP/FRONTLINE Michael Flynn Investigation. Reports on a political network combining election grievances, conspiracy narratives, religion, and Christian nationalist ideas.
101. | Shortle, McDaniel and Nooruddin | The Washington Post | September 1, 2022
Political Elites and Christian Nationalist Mobilization. Discusses how religious-war rhetoric may activate citizens who understand politics through Christian nationalist narratives.
102. | Jack Jenkins | The Washington Post / Religion News Service | January 26, 2022
How the Capitol Attacks Helped Spread Christian Nationalism in the Extreme Right. Examines Christian nationalism as a potential bridge connecting different segments of the far right after January 6.
103. | Associated Press | PBS NewsHour | 2022
Former Trump Adviser Michael Flynn at the Center of New Movement Based on Conspiracies and Christian Nationalism. Examines how religious rhetoric and conspiracy narratives were combined in political organizing.
104. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | TIME | June 1, 2021
The Growing Threat of Christian Nationalism in the U.S. Connects Christian nationalism with attitudes toward voting rights, democratic participation, and January 6.
105. | Michelle Boorstein | The Washington Post | February 5, 2021
A Q&A with Evangelical Writer David French on Christian Nationalism. Discusses polarization, viewing fellow citizens as enemies, political rhetoric, and the aftermath of the Capitol attack.
106. | Seth G. Jones et al. | Center for Strategic and International Studies | June 17, 2020
The Escalating Terrorism Problem in the United States. Documents trends in domestic extremist violence across ideological categories.
107. | Journal of Democracy | National Endowment for Democracy | 2020s
The Rise of Political Violence in the United States. Places contemporary extremist violence within broader trends of polarization and declining democratic tolerance.
108. | Brookings Institution | Brookings | 2020s
Understanding Political Violence in America. Examines political grievance, extremism, partisan hostility, and threats to democratic stability.
109. | Anti-Defamation League | ADL | Updated annually
Murder and Extremism in the United States. Provides data on extremist-related killings and ideological motivations, useful for placing debates about political violence in empirical context.
Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Pluralism
110. | John Ishiyama | Politics and Religion | September 15, 2025
Christian Nationalism and Attitudes About Democracy in Africa. Comparative study finds Christian-nationalist attitudes associated with lower democratic support and greater receptivity to authoritarian alternatives in the African survey data analyzed.
111. | Nilay Saiya | Politics and Religion | May 13, 2025
The Varieties of American Christian Nationalism. Distinguishes different strands within the movement, illustrating why Christian nationalism should not be treated as an entirely homogeneous political bloc.
112. | Jesse Smith | Sociological Forum | August 11, 2024
Old Wine in New Wineskins: Christian Nationalism, Authoritarianism, and the Problem of Essentialism in Explanations of Religiopolitical Conflict. Critiques elements of Christian-nationalism scholarship and argues for greater caution in separating Christian nationalism from broader conservative and authoritarian attitudes.
113. | Pew Research Center | February 28, 2024
Representative Democracy Remains a Popular Ideal, but People Around the World Are Critical of How It's Working. International survey provides context for dissatisfaction with democratic institutions.
114. | PRRI | 2024
Challenges to Democracy and American Values. Examines partisan disagreements over elections, political violence, leadership, and democratic institutions.
115. | Pew Research Center | September 19, 2023
Americans' Feelings About Politics, Polarization and the Tone of Political Debate. Finds widespread dissatisfaction with political discourse alongside deep distrust between partisan groups.
116. | Perspectives on Politics | Cambridge University Press | 2020s
Authoritarianism and Political Polarization. Broader scholarship examines how threat perceptions and authoritarian dispositions interact with partisan divisions.
117. | Brookings Institution | Brookings | 2020s
The Christian Right and Democratic Institutions. Analysis situates contemporary disputes within the longer relationship between conservative Christianity and American politics.
118. | V-Dem Institute | University of Gothenburg | Annual
Democracy Reports. Comparative democracy data provide context for evaluating claims about polarization, democratic backsliding, and institutional erosion.
Freedom in the World. Annual international assessment provides comparative indicators of political rights and civil liberties.
Secularization and Political Backlash
120. | Pew Research Center | January 24, 2024
Religious “Nones” in America. Provides contemporary evidence on the political, demographic, and religious characteristics of unaffiliated Americans.
121. | David E. Campbell, Geoffrey C. Layman and John C. Green | Cambridge University Press | 2021
Secular Surge. Documents the growth of secular political identity and argues that opposition to the Religious Right helped mobilize secular Americans politically.
Political Causes of Secularization. Research explores whether the close identification of conservative Christianity with Republican politics contributes to religious disaffiliation among political liberals.
123. | Ruth Braunstein and Brad R. Fulton | Sociology of Religion | 2020s
Religion and Progressive Political Identity. Examines religious and secular forms of political mobilization outside the conservative Christian coalition.
124. | Michele F. Margolis | University of Chicago Press | 2018
From Politics to the Pews. Research shows that political identity can influence religious affiliation and participation rather than religion operating only as a cause of political preference.
125. | Michele F. Margolis | Journal of Politics | 2017
How Politics Affects Religion. Demonstrates that partisan identification can cause some Americans to alter religious identification or participation.
126. | Michael Hout and Claude S. Fischer | American Sociological Review | 2014
Explaining Why More Americans Have No Religious Preference. Discusses political backlash against conservative religious activism as one contributor to religious disaffiliation.
127. | Pew Research Center | October 9, 2012
“Nones” on the Rise. Documents growth of religious nonaffiliation and its strong relationship with political and generational differences.
Religion and Political Sorting. Examines reciprocal relationships between partisan polarization and changing religious affiliation.
129. | Michael Hout and Claude S. Fischer | American Sociological Review | 2002
Why More Americans Have No Religious Preference. Foundational analysis links growth of the religiously unaffiliated partly to rejection of conservative religious politics.
Religious Institutions and Congregational Polarization
130. | George Yancey | Christianity Today | January 2026
It's Not Christian Nationalism. It's Conservative Identity Politics. Presents a scholarly critique arguing that some behavior attributed to Christian nationalism may be better understood through political identity and ideological conflict.
131. | Christianity Today | March 2024
How (Not) to Talk About Christian Nationalism. Offers a conservative Christian critique of definitions that treat conventional religious conservatism and Christian nationalism as interchangeable.
132. | Bob Smietana | Religion News Service | January 6, 2023
Who Are the Christian Nationalists? A Taxonomy for the Post-Jan. 6 World. Identifies multiple overlapping networks and factions rather than portraying Christian nationalism as a single unified organization.
133. | Yale Institution for Social and Policy Studies | Yale University | October 4, 2022
Understanding White Christian Nationalism. Scholars discuss grievance, race, authoritarianism, democracy, political identity, and the role of Christian nationalism in contemporary American division.
134. | Edward Lempinen | Berkeley News | September 20, 2022
Crisis of Faith: Christian Nationalism and the Threat to U.S. Democracy. Interviews scholars about conservative Christianity, demographic change, polarization, political mobilization, and competing understandings of American national identity.
135. | Religion News Service | January 6, 2022
Christian Nationalism and January 6. Reporting examines Christian symbols, prayer networks, election claims, and political activism surrounding the Capitol attack.
136. | Sociology of Religion | Oxford Academic | 2022
Congregations and Political Polarization. Research explores how partisan homogeneity within congregations can reinforce political identities and social sorting.
137. | Pew Research Center | October 13, 2020
Politics and Sermons During the 2020 Election. Documents political messages heard by religious Americans during the presidential campaign.
138. | Politics and Religion | Cambridge University Press | 2020s
Politics From the Pulpit. Studies clergy political communication and how congregations respond to partisan or policy messages.
139. | Pew Research Center | August 8, 2016
Many Americans Hear Politics From the Pulpit. Surveys Americans about political discussion in houses of worship during an intensely polarized election.
Comparative and Broader Polarization
140. | Christopher H. Seto | Sociology of Religion | May 24, 2026
In God We Trust: Christian Nationalism, Political and Ethno-Racial Identities, and Distrust of Immigrants. Investigates how Christian nationalism interacts with partisan and racial identities in shaping attitudes toward immigrants.
141. | Sixbert Sangwa | Open Journal of Science, Philosophy & Theology | 2025
Exporting Christian Nationalism: Transnational Power, Religious Polarisation, and the Instrumentalisation of the Church. Discusses how American culture-war narratives and Christian nationalist frames can travel into other national contexts.
