Christian Nationalism and Authoritarian Populism
Christian Nationalism and Authoritarian Populism
Christian nationalism and authoritarian populism overlap in a substantial body of contemporary political and sociological research, although scholars disagree about how closely the two concepts should be identified with one another. Christian nationalism generally refers to a political and cultural framework that joins Christian identity with national identity and argues, in varying degrees, that Christianity should occupy a privileged position in the nation's institutions, laws, culture, or public life.
Authoritarian populism describes political movements that portray society as divided between an authentic or morally legitimate "people" and corrupt elites, dangerous outsiders, or illegitimate opponents, while favoring unusually strong political leadership and sometimes displaying reduced commitment to institutional restraints on political power.
Research collected here examines circumstances in which these ideas intersect. Studies investigate Christian nationalism in relation to executive power, democratic norms, voting rights, political violence, racial identity, immigration, conspiracy theories, religious pluralism, charismatic Christianity, Donald Trump, Viktor Orbán, Jair Bolsonaro, and other manifestations of religious-nationalist politics.
At the same time, the literature is not unanimous. Some scholars warn that research can become circular if authoritarian motivations are assumed whenever respondents express Christian-nationalist beliefs. Others emphasize that there are several varieties of Christian nationalism and that Christian political participation, patriotism, civil religion, conservative Christianity, and Christian nationalism should not automatically be treated as synonymous.
Christian Nationalism and Democratic Institutions
One of the central questions in the literature is whether Christian nationalism is associated with weaker attachment to democratic rules and institutions.
Samuel L. Perry and Joshua B. Grubbs examined attitudes toward executive authority during hypothetical national emergencies. Their research found Christian nationalism strongly associated with willingness to allow political leaders to suspend elections, suppress political opponents, or bypass institutional checks and balances during crises.
Research conducted by the Public Religion Research Institute has likewise examined Christian nationalism alongside established measures of authoritarian attitudes. PRRI surveys have reported substantial correlations between Christian-nationalist beliefs and measures involving strong leadership, punishment of dissent, traditional social hierarchy, political violence, immigration, and perceptions of social threat.
Other scholarship examines these relationships outside the United States. Research using Afrobarometer data found that Christian-nationalist attitudes among respondents in African countries were associated with lower support for democracy and greater receptiveness to authoritarian alternatives. Importantly, the same study did not find Christian nationalists uniformly more intolerant toward every religious or social out-group, demonstrating that the relationship between Christian nationalism and authoritarian attitudes is not identical across contexts.
Research therefore generally treats Christian nationalism and authoritarianism as overlapping but analytically distinct phenomena rather than simply interchangeable terms.
Authoritarian Populism and Strong-Leader Politics
Populist politics often divides society between a supposedly authentic people and groups portrayed as corrupt elites, threatening outsiders, or illegitimate political adversaries. Religious nationalism can contribute an additional boundary by defining the legitimate nation partly through religious identity.
Within Christian-nationalist discourse, political conflict may consequently be framed not simply as disagreement over policy but as a struggle over who properly belongs to the nation and who possesses legitimate political authority.
Several studies examine Christian nationalism in relation to preferences for strong leadership and reduced institutional restraint. These findings have led scholars to examine Christian nationalism within the broader literature on authoritarian populism.
The relationship is not necessarily based on theological doctrine alone. Research frequently identifies interactions among religious identity, nationalism, partisan polarization, racial identity, perceived cultural displacement, distrust of institutions, and feelings that a valued social group is losing political power.
This helps explain why researchers often describe Christian nationalism as a cultural or political framework rather than simply a set of religious beliefs.
Donald Trump and Christian Nationalist Politics
A large portion of the American literature examines the relationship between Christian nationalism and support for Donald Trump.
Research following the 2016 election found that Christian nationalism independently predicted support for Trump even after researchers controlled for several other political and social characteristics. Subsequent studies examined relationships among Christian nationalism, immigration attitudes, Islamophobia, racial identity, gender attitudes, and support for Trump.
Researchers have also examined religious narratives surrounding Trump's political leadership. Some activists have portrayed Trump in providential terms, describing his political role as divinely authorized or necessary for defending Christianity and the nation from perceived enemies.
Journalistic and scholarly accounts have documented churches, political organizations, charismatic Christian networks, and activist movements that combine support for Trump with Christian-nationalist rhetoric.
These patterns have encouraged comparisons with authoritarian populism, particularly where political leaders are presented as uniquely capable of rescuing the nation from internal enemies, institutional obstruction, cultural decline, or existential threat.
However, support for Trump among Christians is broader than Christian nationalism alone, and Christian nationalism should not be treated as synonymous with evangelical Christianity, conservative Christianity, Republican identification, or ordinary Christian political participation.
Political Violence and January 6
The January 6, 2021 attack on the U.S. Capitol became a major focus of Christian-nationalism research because Christian imagery, prayers, flags, symbols, and rhetoric were visible among some participants.
Studies have examined associations among Christian nationalism, perceived victimization, White identity, QAnon beliefs, election denial, conspiracy thinking, and support for political violence.
Research suggests that Christian nationalism can become especially associated with acceptance of political violence when combined with perceptions that Christians, White Americans, conservatives, or other favored groups are being unfairly displaced or persecuted.
Other studies examine gun ownership and Christian nationalism, finding that combinations of religious-nationalist beliefs, group threat, and attitudes toward firearms may be associated with increased acceptance of political violence.
Scholars nevertheless distinguish between observing statistical associations and claiming that Christian nationalism alone causes political violence. The literature generally emphasizes interacting political, psychological, religious, racial, and social factors.
Spiritual Warfare, Prophecy, and Apocalyptic Politics
Some Christian-nationalist networks employ concepts derived from charismatic Christianity, prophecy, spiritual warfare, and apocalyptic theology.
Political opponents may be interpreted not merely as people holding different political views but as participants in a cosmic conflict between good and evil. Political events may similarly be presented as fulfillment of prophecy or evidence of divine intervention.
Researchers have examined how these frameworks can intensify political conflict by transforming ordinary electoral competition into an existential struggle.
Persecution narratives also play an important role. If political developments are understood as evidence that Christianity itself is under attack, compromise may be interpreted as surrender rather than as a normal part of democratic government.
This dynamic is particularly important in research concerning charismatic political movements, the New Apostolic Reformation, the Seven Mountains Mandate, and related forms of dominion-oriented political theology.
Dominionism, the New Apostolic Reformation, and the Seven Mountains Mandate
Christian nationalism encompasses several theological and political traditions rather than one unified movement.
One important current is associated with Dominionism, Christian Reconstructionism, the New Apostolic Reformation, and the Seven Mountains Mandate.
The Seven Mountains framework teaches that Christians should exercise greater influence over major spheres of society, commonly identified as government, education, media, business, family, religion, and arts or entertainment.
Some participants understand this primarily as encouragement for Christian cultural participation. Critics and researchers focusing on political movements argue that stronger versions can imply an effort to obtain Christian control over major social institutions.
The New Apostolic Reformation is a decentralized charismatic movement emphasizing contemporary apostles, prophets, spiritual warfare, and cultural transformation. Some leaders associated with these networks became prominent in political organizing surrounding Trump and the 2020 election.
Researchers caution that neither Dominionism nor the New Apostolic Reformation represents Christianity as a whole and that substantial theological and organizational differences exist within movements commonly grouped under the Christian-nationalist label.
Voting Rights, Civil Liberties, and the Rule of Law
Research has also examined Christian nationalism in relation to voting rights and democratic participation.
Some studies find Christian-nationalist attitudes associated with perceptions that voting is too easy, beliefs that voter fraud is widespread, reduced concern about voter suppression, and support for restrictions on access to voting.
Other work examines whether support for civil liberties changes according to which groups would exercise those liberties. This research asks whether principles such as freedom of speech, religious liberty, protest rights, or equal legal treatment are applied consistently to political and religious in-groups and out-groups.
Experimental research suggests that perceived threats to Christianity may be particularly important. Individuals can express support for religious pluralism or democratic principles in the abstract while becoming less tolerant when they believe their religious or political group is endangered.
This distinction between abstract democratic principles and their application to political adversaries is central to research on authoritarianism and democratic backsliding.
Race, White Christian Nationalism, and National Identity
Race occupies an important place in research on American Christian nationalism.
Scholars distinguish Christianity as a religion from White Christian nationalism as a political-cultural identity connecting Christianity, American identity, racial hierarchy, national history, and political belonging.
Studies have found associations between Christian nationalism and measures of White racial solidarity, perceived group status, immigration attitudes, and beliefs concerning demographic change.
Historical research connects contemporary Christian-nationalist politics with longer debates involving slavery, segregation, immigration, Manifest Destiny, racial hierarchy, and definitions of American citizenship.
These relationships do not mean that Christian nationalism exists exclusively among White Americans. Research examining Christian nationalism across racial groups finds important differences in motivations, political attitudes, religious traditions, and understandings of national identity.
Consequently, scholars increasingly warn against assuming that identical survey responses always have identical meanings across racial, religious, and political communities.
Immigration, Demographic Change, and Social Hierarchy
Immigration frequently appears in research on Christian nationalism because national identity is partly constructed through boundaries defining who properly belongs.
Some studies find Christian nationalism associated with distrust of immigrants, concern about cultural displacement, and preference for maintaining historically dominant cultural identities.
Related research examines pronatalism and demographic replacement concerns. These studies investigate whether respondents believe certain social, religious, or racial populations should grow while expressing concern about demographic growth among others.
Gender hierarchy also intersects with Christian nationalism. Researchers have investigated relationships among Christian nationalism, traditional gender roles, patriarchy, masculinity, family authority, and preferences for hierarchical social organization.
Together, these findings contribute to theories describing Christian nationalism as involving political power, social boundaries, and hierarchy rather than religious belief alone.
QAnon, Conspiracy Theories, and Enemy Construction
Christian nationalism has also been studied in connection with conspiracy-oriented political movements, particularly QAnon.
Research does not equate QAnon with Christianity or Christian nationalism. Instead, scholars examine overlapping constituencies, symbols, persecution narratives, and political identities.
QAnon frequently uses apocalyptic and religious imagery despite originating primarily as a political conspiracy movement. Its narratives divide society into morally absolute categories of good and evil and portray hidden enemies as controlling government, media, cultural institutions, or international organizations.
When these narratives combine with Christian nationalism, political opponents may be portrayed as existential threats rather than legitimate participants in democratic competition.
This process of enemy construction can intensify distrust, delegitimize elections or institutions, and increase willingness among some individuals to consider extraordinary political measures.
Religious Freedom and Religious Pluralism
Debates over Christian nationalism also concern the meaning of religious freedom.
Supporters of stronger Christian influence in public life may understand such efforts as protecting religious liberty or restoring a cultural tradition they believe has been unfairly marginalized.
Critics argue that religious liberty requires government neutrality among religious traditions rather than preferential treatment for Christianity.
Research therefore distinguishes the freedom of Christians to participate fully in politics from the separate question of whether government should officially privilege Christian identity, institutions, doctrines, or symbols.
Survey research shows considerable variation in what Americans mean when they describe the United States as a "Christian nation." For some, the phrase refers to historical influence or moral culture. For others, it implies government promotion of Christianity or formal religious preference.
These distinctions are essential because support for Christian cultural influence does not necessarily imply support for theocracy or authoritarian government.
Christian Nationalism and Populism Outside the United States
Christian nationalism is not exclusively an American phenomenon.
Comparative scholarship examines relationships among Christianity, national identity, populism, and authoritarian politics in Europe, Russia, Brazil, Africa, and other regions.
Hungary under Viktor Orbán has received particular attention. Researchers examine how Christianity functions as a marker of Hungarian national and civilizational identity within populist political rhetoric concerning immigration, sovereignty, European integration, and national culture.
Similar scholarship examines political uses of Christianity by European radical-right movements that frame Christianity less as personal religious belief than as a cultural boundary distinguishing Europe from immigrants, Muslims, secular elites, or supranational institutions.
Comparative work therefore places Christian nationalism within the broader category of religious nationalism, in which religious identity becomes intertwined with claims about national sovereignty, authentic citizenship, political legitimacy, and cultural survival.
Brazil, Bolsonaro, and Evangelical Populism
Brazil provides another major comparative case.
Research on Jair Bolsonaro examines relationships among evangelical political mobilization, conservative religious activism, right-wing populism, and national identity.
Bolsonaro developed strong relationships with portions of Brazil's evangelical electorate and incorporated Christian language and religious symbolism into his political campaigns and administration.
Researchers have examined evangelical appointments, legislative networks, religious rhetoric, and relationships between churches and political organizations.
More recent Brazilian debates have focused on Dominion theology and Seven Mountains ideas, raising questions similar to those found in the United States concerning the boundary between legitimate religious political participation and attempts to establish religious authority over state institutions.
Brazil also illustrates why Christian nationalism cannot simply be reduced to American racial or denominational structures. Religious nationalism adapts to distinctive national histories, party systems, racial arrangements, and church-state relationships.
Christian Nationalism and Global Authoritarianism
Some studies investigate whether American Christian-nationalist attitudes correspond with favorable perceptions of authoritarian leaders abroad.
Research has examined attitudes toward Vladimir Putin, particularly his presentation as a defender of Christianity, nationalism, traditional morality, and political sovereignty.
Other comparative scholarship examines Viktor Orbán, Bolsonaro, and political movements in Central and Eastern Europe.
These cases share certain themes, including opposition to liberal cosmopolitan elites, emphasis on traditional social values, hostility toward immigration or cultural pluralism, and claims that national sovereignty must be defended against internal or external enemies.
The similarities have encouraged scholars to analyze Christian nationalism within the broader international development of religious-nationalist and populist politics.
At the same time, major institutional and historical differences among countries make direct equivalence inappropriate.
Measurement and Definitions
A significant scholarly debate concerns how Christian nationalism should be measured.
Much American research uses survey questions concerning whether the federal government should declare the United States a Christian nation, whether government should advocate Christian values, whether church-state separation should be strict, whether national success is part of God's plan, and related ideas.
Critics argue that survey scales may combine distinct concepts such as nationalism, religiosity, conservative politics, civil religion, cultural Christianity, and authoritarianism.
Psychometric research has questioned whether common Christian-nationalism scales should always be interpreted as measuring one continuous underlying ideology.
Other scholars argue that despite imperfections, these measures consistently predict important political attitudes that cannot be explained entirely by religiosity or partisanship.
These measurement debates remain important because conclusions about Christian nationalism depend partly on how researchers define and operationalize the concept.
Varieties of Christian Nationalism
Recent scholarship increasingly treats Christian nationalism as internally diverse.
Possible varieties include cultural Christian nationalism, ethno-religious nationalism, charismatic Christian nationalism, Dominionism, Christian populism, and forms centered primarily on historical or civilizational identity.
Some individuals who affirm that America has a Christian heritage may nevertheless strongly support democracy and religious pluralism.
Others may favor explicit government promotion of Christianity or restrictions on the political influence of religious minorities.
Still others combine Christian nationalism with charismatic prophecy, spiritual warfare, or expectations that Christians should obtain institutional control.
Treating these positions as identical can obscure significant theological and political differences.
Critiques of the Authoritarianism Thesis
Not all scholarship accepts the strongest claims linking Christian nationalism with authoritarianism.
Sociologist Jesse Smith argues that some Christian-nationalism scholarship risks reproducing weaknesses of earlier authoritarian-personality research. He warns that researchers may interpret ambiguous findings through assumptions that Christian-nationalist respondents possess inherently authoritarian motivations while failing to consider alternative explanations.
Other researchers emphasize partisan sorting. Christian-nationalist attitudes may increasingly correlate with authoritarian, racial, or populist attitudes partly because political coalitions have become more polarized and ideologically homogeneous.
Research also shows that Christian-nationalist and pluralistic beliefs can coexist within the same individuals. Support for democratic norms may change according to political context, perceived threat, partisan control, or the identities of groups involved.
These critiques do not necessarily dispute statistical associations reported in the broader literature. Instead, they challenge simple causal or essentialist interpretations and emphasize the importance of context, measurement, and comparison groups.
Christianity and Christian Nationalism
A recurring theme throughout the literature is the distinction between Christianity and Christian nationalism.
Christianity encompasses enormous theological, denominational, cultural, and political diversity. Christian communities include supporters, opponents, and critics of Christian nationalism.
Christian political participation by itself does not constitute Christian nationalism.
Similarly, patriotism, public prayer, religious conservatism, church attendance, opposition to abortion, or membership in a particular political party do not independently establish that someone holds Christian-nationalist beliefs.
The analytical distinction concerns the fusion of religious identity with national political identity and, particularly, claims about Christianity's privileged relationship to government, citizenship, national legitimacy, or political authority.
Christian critics of Christian nationalism often argue that merging Christianity with political power distorts Christian theology and undermines religious freedom. Supporters of stronger Christian political influence may instead argue that Christianity has historically shaped national institutions and should retain an influential public role.
Authoritarian Populism as a Broader Framework
Christian nationalism can be understood within a broader theory of authoritarian populism when several elements occur together.
These include a morally defined "real people," distrust of political elites and institutions, hostility toward groups portrayed as outsiders, claims that ordinary procedures obstruct the people's will, preference for forceful leadership, and willingness to weaken institutional constraints to achieve political goals.
Religious nationalism can reinforce these tendencies when the political community is additionally defined through sacred identity.
Political disputes then risk becoming struggles between those understood as legitimate members of the nation and those portrayed as enemies of its divinely sanctioned character.
Yet neither populism nor Christian nationalism inevitably produces authoritarian government. Political outcomes depend on institutions, leadership, social coalitions, historical circumstances, opposition movements, and public commitment to democratic norms.
Conclusion
The research collected on Christian nationalism and authoritarian populism describes a complex relationship rather than a simple equivalence.
A substantial empirical literature finds associations between Christian nationalism and support for strong political leadership, restrictions on democratic participation, unequal treatment of political out-groups, political violence, racial and religious boundary-making, conspiracy beliefs, and reduced commitment to some democratic norms.
These relationships become especially pronounced in contexts involving perceived cultural displacement, political threat, election conflict, racial identity, partisan polarization, or claims that Christianity is being persecuted.
The literature surrounding Donald Trump, January 6, charismatic prophecy, Dominionism, the New Apostolic Reformation, and the Seven Mountains Mandate illustrates how religious identity can become intertwined with populist movements seeking political power.
Comparative research demonstrates that similar interactions between religion, nationalism, and populism occur outside the United States, including in Hungary, Brazil, parts of Europe, Russia, and African political contexts.
However, important scholarly disagreements remain. Christian nationalism is not a single uniform ideology, Christianity itself should not be conflated with Christian nationalism, and statistical associations do not establish that every Christian nationalist holds authoritarian beliefs.
Measurement choices, partisan sorting, social context, racial identity, theological differences, and perceived political threat all influence how Christian-nationalist attitudes are expressed.
The broader evidence therefore supports examining Christian nationalism as one potentially important component of contemporary authoritarian-populist politics while maintaining distinctions among religious belief, nationalism, civil religion, conservative political participation, populism, and authoritarianism.
Democratic Institutions, Authoritarianism, and Executive Power
1. | Andrew L. Whitehead | Kettering Foundation | October 2, 2026
Uses Kettering-Gallup Democracy for All survey data to compare Americans who strongly embrace Christian nationalism with those who reject it, focusing on executive power, checks and balances, democratic inclusion, and competing understandings of democracy.
2. | John Ishiyama | Politics and Religion | September 15, 2025
Uses Afrobarometer data and finds Christian-nationalist attitudes in the African sample associated with less support for democracy and greater receptiveness to authoritarian political alternatives.
3. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | November 7, 2025
Examines predictors of Christian nationalism and authoritarian attitudes using the 2025 American Values Survey and measures involving strong leadership, punishment of dissent, and traditional social order.
4. | Michael R. Fisher Jr. | Public Religion Research Institute | June 18, 2025
Analyzes racial differences in the relationships among Christian nationalism, authoritarianism, religious identity, and political attitudes rather than treating Christian nationalists as one homogeneous population.
5. | Samuel L. Perry | Social Forces | April 27, 2025
Connects Christian nationalism with authoritarian approaches to parenting and punishment, examining how preferences for social order can extend from family relationships to broader civic life.
6. | Paul A. Djupe | Sociology of Religion | March 8, 2025
Investigates Christian nationalism, masculinity, femininity, and extreme political attitudes among American men, examining dispositional factors associated with both Christian nationalism and political radicalization.
7. | PRRI | Public Religion Research Institute | 2025
Explores support for democratic principles, authoritarianism, church-state separation, and related attitudes across racial and religious groups.
8. | Various Authors | Frontiers in Political Science | 2026
Examines "true American" identity, Christian nationalism, ascriptive republicanism, and support for populist-right politics during the 2024 election.
9. | Samuel L. Perry and Joshua B. Grubbs | Politics and Religion | September 19, 2024
Finds Christian nationalism strongly associated with willingness to permit leaders to suspend elections, suppress political opponents, or disregard institutional checks during hypothetical national emergencies.
10. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | September 10, 2024
Uses more than 5,000 interviews to examine Christian nationalism alongside right-wing authoritarianism, child-rearing authoritarianism, political violence, immigration attitudes, patriarchy, and democratic values.
11. | Jesse Smith | Sociological Forum | August 11, 2024
Critiques scholarship that automatically interprets Christian nationalism through authoritarianism, arguing that researchers should test alternative explanations and avoid essentializing respondents.
12. | Jesse Smith | Sociological Forum | August 11, 2024
Critiques parts of Christian-nationalism scholarship by comparing it with earlier authoritarianism research and warning against essentialism, tautology, and selective interpretation. Useful as a methodological counterpoint.
13. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute / Brookings | February 8, 2023
Major national survey examining Christian nationalism, authoritarian leadership, political violence, racial identity, immigration, patriarchy, antisemitism, and attitudes toward religious minorities.
14. | Brookings Institution and PRRI | Brookings Institution | February 8, 2023
Presents expert discussion of survey findings concerning Christian nationalism, authoritarianism, political violence, racial identity, and the health of American democratic institutions.
15. | Nilay Saiya | The Review of Faith & International Affairs | 2023
Places Christian nationalism in global perspective and argues that religious-nationalist efforts to privilege Christianity politically can contribute to democratic erosion and authoritarian government.
Voting Rights, Rule of Law, and Democratic Participation
16. | Paul A. Djupe and Brooklyn Walker | Religion News Service | August 21, 2026
Summarizes research showing that perceived threats to Christianity can reduce tolerance even among Christian nationalists who otherwise express support for religious pluralism.
17. | Chip Rotolo and Gregory A. Smith | Pew Research Center | May 14, 2026
National survey examines attitudes toward Christian nationalism, church-state separation, government promotion of Christianity, and the appropriate political role of religious organizations.
18. | Paul A. Djupe and Brooklyn Walker | Politics and Religion | March 26, 2026
Finds that some Christian nationalists simultaneously endorse pluralistic principles, but perceived threat can reduce political tolerance and allow Christian-nationalist commitments to override those inclusive attitudes.
19. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 17, 2026
Examines Christian nationalism in nine electorally significant states and provides state-level demographic, religious, and partisan comparisons.
20. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 2026
Maps Christian-nationalist attitudes across the United States and compares them with right-wing authoritarianism and support for political violence.
Describes demographic change, partisan sorting, political radicalization, apocalyptic rhetoric, and declining acceptance of electoral rotation among parts of conservative Christianity.
22. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | 2025
Provides state-level measurements and examines Christian nationalism in relation to democracy, partisan identification, Trump support, religion, and public attitudes.
23. | Hannah Criser | Sigma: Journal of Political and International Studies | 2025
Reports survey evidence that Christian nationalists were more accepting of several kinds of democratic norm violations committed by fellow citizens.
24. | Corwin E. Smidt | Religions | November 10, 2024
Compares Christian nationalism with civic republicanism and radical secularism, offering a conceptual framework for distinguishing several competing views of religion's role in American government.
25. | PRRI / Meanings of Democracy Lab | Public Religion Research Institute | October 30, 2024
Maps both support for and resistance to Christian nationalism and emphasizes that large portions of the American public reject its assumptions about Christian identity and political authority.
26. | Joshua T. Davis, Samuel L. Perry and Joshua B. Grubbs | Sociology of Religion | 2024
"Liberty for Us, Limits for Them" examines whether Christian nationalism predicts differing support for civil liberties depending on which social or religious groups would exercise those rights.
27. | Zachary D. Broeren and Paul A. Djupe | Politics and Religion | December 4, 2023
Experimental study examines whether Christian nationalism affects equal application of the rule of law to political and religious in-groups and out-groups.
28. | Abigail Vegter, Andrew R. Lewis and Cammie Jo Bolin | Politics and Religion | January 26, 2023
Distinguishes American civil religion from Christian nationalism and shows that religious-national rhetoric is interpreted through increasingly partisan political identities.
29. | Allyson F. Shortle | The Washington Post | September 1, 2022
Examines public acceptance of the Christian-nationalist label and discusses academic definitions distinguishing Christian nationalism from ordinary religious belief or patriotism.
30. | Michelle Boorstein | The Washington Post | March 18, 2022
Reports on congressional discussion of research linking Christian nationalism with voting restrictions, January 6, political radicalization, and democratic participation.
31. | Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead, and Joshua B. Grubbs | Sociological Forum | January 3, 2022
Finds Christian nationalism associated with believing voting is too easy, minimizing voter suppression, believing voter fraud is widespread, and supporting restrictions on political participation.
32. | Guthrie Graves-Fitzsimmons et al. | Center for American Progress | March 31, 2021
Examines religious organizations mobilizing around democratic participation and contrasts pluralistic religious activism with Christian-nationalist politics.
33. | Paul A. Djupe | Religion in Public | December 11, 2019
Examines how Christian-nationalist identity relates to perceptions of democratic health, political opponents, and willingness to recognize threats to democratic norms.
Political Violence, January 6, and Authoritarian Mobilization
"An Army for God" analyzes how gun ownership and Christian nationalism interact in predicting willingness to approve political violence.
35. | Joel Day | Terrorism and Political Violence | September 11, 2025
Treats Christian nationalism as a social practice and analyzes prayer, public ritual, political identity, and the normalization or legitimation of political violence.
36. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | June 18, 2025
Examines connections among charismatic Christian beliefs, prophecy, Christian nationalism, Trump support, and willingness to justify political violence.
37. | Various Authors | Religions | April 2025
Discusses political polarization inside Christian congregations, Christian nationalism, authoritarianism, and growing concern over acceptance of political violence.
38. | Nilay Saiya and Stuti Manchanda | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | September 2, 2024
Cross-state quantitative research finds an association between political expression of Christian-nationalist ideas and violence targeting religious minorities.
39. | Hannah Allam | The Washington Post | July 13, 2024
Investigates militant religious rhetoric among some pro-Trump Christian-nationalist networks and expert concerns about biblical language being used to legitimize political violence.
40. | Various Authors | Politics and Religion | 2024
Examines differences among Republican pastors concerning political force and investigates when Christian-nationalist beliefs may contribute to acceptance of coercive political action.
41. | Amanpour & Company | PBS | January 30, 2024
Discusses the documentary God & Country and interviews participants about Christian nationalism, authoritarianism, January 6, and the political use of Christian identity.
42. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | TIME | January 5, 2024
Discusses January 6 narratives, election denial, political violence, and survey research concerning Christian-nationalist attitudes.
43. | Various Authors | Politics and Religion | 2023
Studies apocalyptic expectations, Christian persecution beliefs, Christian nationalism, and preparedness behavior in the politically polarized period after the 2020 election.
44. | Michelle R. Smith | Associated Press / FRONTLINE | September 7, 2022
Investigates Michael Flynn's post-2020 political network, the ReAwaken America movement, election denial, and Christian-nationalist organizing.
Documents Christian symbolism, organizations, rhetoric, prayers, clergy, and activists associated with the January 6 Capitol attack.
Detailed report on Christian-nationalist symbolism, organizations, leaders, and rhetoric associated with the January 6 insurrection.
47. | Miles T. Armaly, David T. Buckley and Adam M. Enders | Political Behavior | January 4, 2022
Examines Christian nationalism, perceived victimhood, White identity, conspiracy beliefs, and support for political violence surrounding the January 6 Capitol attack.
Trumpism, Strongman Politics, and Authoritarian Populism
48. | Adam Gabbatt | The Guardian | April 16, 2025
Examines Christian-nationalist organizations, officials, and policy ideas during Trump's second administration and criticism concerning executive power and democratic institutions.
49. | Joseph Gedeon | The Guardian | February 7, 2025
Covers Trump's executive actions concerning alleged anti-Christian discrimination and debates about whether these policies advance Christian-nationalist political goals.
50. | PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 4, 2025
Reports results from more than 22,000 respondents concerning Christian nationalism, Trump voting, political violence, religious attendance, partisan identity, and media use.
51. | Andrew L. Whitehead | Nations and Nationalism | 2025
Examines state-level Christian nationalism and Trump's 2024 vote share. The study treats Christian nationalism as part of the ideological context surrounding Trump's populist political appeal.
52. | David Smith | The Guardian | April 27, 2024
Reviews Bad Faith, a documentary tracing Christian nationalist political organizing and its relationship with conservative activism, January 6, executive power, and Project 2025.
53. | Adam Gabbatt | The Guardian | April 7, 2024
Reports on activists who interpret Trump's political leadership through religious or providential narratives and examines their relationship with the Christian-nationalist movement.
54. | Eric L. McDaniel | TIME | October 27, 2023
Discusses Christian nationalism in relation to House Speaker Mike Johnson and explains its connection to hierarchy, strong leadership, social control, and challenges to electoral outcomes.
55. | Peter Stone | The Guardian | May 1, 2023
Reports on conservative pastors mobilizing around Trump and Christian-nationalist ideas and includes criticism from Christians who reject that political theology.
56. | Kristin Kobes Du Mez | The Washington Post | June 29, 2022
Places evangelical support for Trump within a longer history of conservative Christian strongman ideals, militant masculinity, political confrontation, and authoritarian populism.
57. | Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead, and Joshua B. Grubbs | Politics and Religion | 2021
Examines whether Christian nationalism influenced Americans' willingness to change their voting behavior toward or away from Trump before the 2020 election.
58. | Sarah Pulliam Bailey | The Washington Post | October 26, 2020
Reports on the emergence of "Patriot Churches" blending evangelical worship, nationalism, Trump support, and a narrative that Christianity is under political siege.
Finds Christian nationalism to be an independent predictor of voting for Donald Trump in 2016 even after accounting for several other political and social attitudes.
Race, Immigration, Identity, and Social Hierarchy
60. | David Sikkink | Sociology of Religion | November 3, 2025
Studies divisions among evangelicals concerning racial inequality and finds Christian nationalism and education help explain contrasting interpretations of Black disadvantage.
61. | Christopher H. Seto | Sociology of Religion | May 24, 2026
Finds Christian nationalism associated with distrust of immigrants while examining differences across political and racial identities.
62. | Samuel L. Perry | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | March 14, 2026
Examines Christian nationalism, pronatalism, replacement concerns, gender, and preferences regarding which populations should grow.
63. | Various Authors | Sociology of Religion | 2026
Explores Christian nationalism as an economic and class phenomenon by examining support for organized labor and preferences regarding economic hierarchy.
64. | Samuel L. Perry et al. | Social Forces | February 23, 2025
Examines Christian nationalism as a religious component of White identity politics and finds strong associations with racial solidarity among White respondents.
65. | Adam Gabbatt | The Guardian | January 19, 2025
Interviews Katherine Stewart about wealthy conservative networks, Christian nationalism, executive power, populist rhetoric, and efforts she argues threaten pluralistic democracy.
66. | Jason Wilson | The Guardian | March 11, 2024
Investigates links between conservative intellectual networks and a secretive organization whose documents envision a more explicitly Christian and hierarchical political regime.
67. | Jemar Tisby | TIME | February 3, 2023
Discusses persecution narratives, apocalyptic political rhetoric, racial hierarchy, democratic erosion, and the normalization of Christian nationalism.
68. | Andrew L. Whitehead | The Washington Post | October 25, 2022
Examines evidence that Christian-nationalist beliefs were becoming more influential inside Republican politics even as aggregate public support showed a more complicated pattern.
69. | Andrew L. Whitehead | TIME | September 20, 2022
Summarizes scholarship connecting Christian nationalism with social hierarchy, racial boundaries, authoritarian control, and willingness to use coercive political power.
70. | Mike Cummings | Yale News | March 15, 2022
Interviews sociologist Philip Gorski about White Christian nationalism, populism, race, authoritarian politics, and democratic institutions.
71. | Philip S. Gorski and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | 2022
The Flag and the Cross traces the history of White Christian nationalism and analyzes its relationship with racism, nativism, violence, populism, and authoritarianism.
72. | Yale University | Yale MacMillan Center | 2022
Summarizes scholarly discussion of Christian nationalism, racial identity, authoritarianism, political grievance, misinformation, and threats to democratic norms.
73. | Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | Sociology of Religion | May 14, 2020
Examines Christian nationalism, xenophobia, Islamophobia, and support for Trump and argues these forms of identity politics can mutually reinforce one another.
Political Theology, Dominionism, and Christian Nationalist Movements
74. | Political Research Associates | Political Research Associates | July 7, 2026
Discusses the Seven Mountains Mandate and its goal of increasing Christian influence across government, education, media, business, family, religion, and entertainment.
75. | Craig L. Nessan | Currents in Theology and Mission | June 17, 2026
Introduces Christian nationalism's historical background and discusses Christian Reconstructionism, Dominionism, the New Apostolic Reformation, and the Seven Mountains Mandate.
76. | Matthew D. Taylor | New Faces of Democracy | April 22, 2026
Explores independent charismatic Christianity, the New Apostolic Reformation, January 6, religious nationalism, and debates over democratic authority.
77. | Hanne Amanda Trangerud | Studies in Religion / Sciences Religieuses | November 22, 2025
Compares the Seven Mountains Mandate with political strategies associated with conservative activist Paul Weyrich and examines their influence within networks supporting Donald Trump.
78. | Nilay Saiya | Politics and Religion | May 13, 2025
Distinguishes multiple traditions of Christian nationalism, including charismatic dominionism and the New Apostolic Reformation, rather than treating the movement as ideologically uniform.
79. | Various Authors | Georgetown Berkley Center | 2025
Discusses the convergence of Christian nationalism and populist authoritarianism in the United States while situating it alongside other forms of religious nationalism internationally.
80. | Melissa Deckman et al. | Harvard Divinity School | November 14, 2024
Discusses religion, democracy, White nationalism, reproductive politics, and Christian nationalism, including interpretations of the ideology as authoritarian and grievance-centered.
81. | Walter G. Moss | LA Progressive | October 7, 2024
Reviews Matthew D. Taylor's research on the New Apostolic Reformation and discusses its relationship with polarization, Christian nationalism, and political authority.
82. | Peter Smith | Associated Press | 2024
Examines charismatic Christian leaders who portrayed the 2024 election as spiritual warfare and analyzes the Seven Mountain Mandate, prophecy, Trump support, and Christian nationalism.
83. | Laura Flanders & Friends | PBS | 2024
Presents arguments from religious leaders, historians, and political observers about the distinction between Christianity and Christian nationalism and about whether the latter contributes to authoritarian politics.
84. | Michelle Boorstein | The Washington Post | May 19, 2023
Explains competing definitions of Christian nationalism, including dominionism and the Seven Mountain Mandate, and examines debates over how explicitly anti-democratic different currents are.
85. | Bob Smietana | Religion News Service | January 6, 2023
Provides a taxonomy of Christian-nationalist leaders and movements after January 6, showing important organizational and theological differences within the broader phenomenon.
86. | Charles Taylor and Miroslav Volf | Yale Center for Faith & Culture | October 2, 2021
Wide-ranging discussion of Christian nationalism, fear of demographic replacement, post-truth politics, authoritarian government, and the weaknesses of contemporary democracies.
87. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Yale Center for Faith & Culture | 2020
Discusses Christian nationalism as a cultural framework that fuses Christianity with American civic identity and explains its relationship to political power, social boundaries, and hierarchy.
QAnon, Conspiracy, Misinformation, and Persecution Narratives
88. | Matthew D. Taylor | Religion News Service | September 26, 2026
Discusses the theological and political use of Christian authority in movements Taylor characterizes as religiously legitimating authoritarian leadership.
89. | Michael R. Fisher Jr. | Public Religion Research Institute | 2026
Examines Christian nationalism, evangelical identity, authoritarian attitudes, apocalyptic beliefs, and public willingness to justify political violence.
90. | Steven Foertsch, Rudra Chakraborty and Paul Joosse | Politics and Religion | December 4, 2023
Analyzes QAnon as primarily a populist political movement that makes substantial use of religious imagery and rhetoric.
91. | Paul A. Djupe and Jacob Dennen | The Washington Post | January 26, 2021
Examines overlap among Christian nationalism, conspiracy-oriented political identities, antisemitism, and support for Trump.
92. | Miles T. Armaly, David T. Buckley, and Adam M. Enders | Political Behavior | January 4, 2022
Demonstrates how Christian nationalism's relationship with political violence becomes stronger when combined with perceived victimization, White identity, and QAnon support.
93. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | TIME | June 1, 2021
Connects research on Christian nationalism with January 6, voting restrictions, exclusionary political participation, and anti-democratic attitudes.
Religious Freedom, Pluralism, and Minority Rights
94. | Peter Smith | Associated Press / PBS NewsHour | May 14, 2026
Reports debate surrounding the Rededicate 250 event and whether government participation in explicitly Christian national symbolism undermines church-state separation.
95. | Peter Smith | Associated Press | May 14, 2026
Examines criticism and defenses of a national prayer event involving Trump administration officials and conservative Christian leaders.
96. | Guardian Staff | The Guardian | April 25, 2026
Examines Christian opposition to Christian nationalism and illustrates why analysts caution against equating Christianity generally with authoritarian nationalist politics.
97. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
Presents Americans' descriptions of Christian nationalism, ranging from positive ideas about moral influence to concerns about authoritarianism, racism, religious domination, and exclusion.
98. | PRRI | Public Religion Research Institute | 2022
Discusses religious nationalism, authoritarian political preferences, state coercion, and attitudes toward LGBTQ political candidates.
99. | Guthrie Graves-Fitzsimmons and Maggie Siddiqi | Center for American Progress | April 13, 2022
Discusses the argument that government favoritism toward one religious identity conflicts with religious liberty and equal citizenship.
100. | Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty | BJC | 2021
Defines Christian nationalism as a cultural framework merging Christianity and American civic identity and summarizes research connecting it with authoritarianism, nativism, patriarchy, and militarism.
International and Comparative Religious Nationalism
101. | David Smith | The Guardian | October 3, 2026
Interview with Robert P. Jones concerning his argument that contemporary White Christian nationalism should be examined alongside historical cases in which religious institutions accommodated authoritarian political movements.
102. | Various Authors | Journal of Contemporary European Studies | 2026
Analyzes Viktor Orbán's populist performances in Transylvania and his use of Christianity, nationhood, sovereignty, and elite conflict in constructing political belonging.
103. | Susanna Mancini and Michel Rosenfeld | Oxford University Press | April 1, 2026
Compares religious nationalism and religious populism, emphasizing how each can define an authentic "people" against minorities, outsiders, or secular elites.
104. | Kristóf Szombati | Current Anthropology | January 14, 2026
Examines how Hungarian churches participate in the state's illiberal political project and provide both ideological legitimation and social governance functions.
105. | Damjan Mandelc | Religions | September 17, 2025
Examines how populist radical-right parties in Slovenia, France, and Poland use Christianity as a civilizational identity in debates over migration, Islam, and national belonging.
106. | Nilay Saiya | Harvard Divinity School | March 5, 2025
Compares Christian nationalism in the United States with religious-nationalist politics elsewhere and discusses authoritarian leaders, religious privilege, and democratic erosion.
107. | Ashley Parker et al. | The Washington Post | November 6, 2024
Places debates over American democratic backsliding within the international rise of populist and authoritarian movements, including Viktor Orbán's Christian-nationalist government in Hungary.
108. | Various Authors | Nations and Nationalism | 2024
Reviews religion and nationalism in Southeastern and Central-Eastern Europe and discusses a regional wave of right-wing populist authoritarian politics using Christianity as a national identity marker.
109. | Various Authors | Religions | August 2023
Studies Christian references in Viktor Orbán's political rhetoric and how religion contributes to populist construction of "the people," national sovereignty, and political legitimacy.
Finds Christian nationalism associated with warmer attitudes toward Vladimir Putin, whom the authors characterize as embodying authoritarian ethno-nationalism.
111. | Samuel L. Perry et al. | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | May 4, 2023
Examines how American Christian-nationalist beliefs relate to admiration for Putin's leadership and perceptions of Russia.
112. | Georgetown University | Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs | 2021–2023
Research project examining the interaction of religious nationalism, populism, political identity, misinformation, and democratic institutions across countries.
113. | Various Authors | Politics and Religion | 2021
Analyzes Viktor Orbán's use of Christianity as a central identity marker in Hungarian radical-right populism and his conception of an explicitly Christian political order.
Brazil, Bolsonaro, and Evangelical Populism
114. | Folha de S.Paulo Staff | Folha de S.Paulo | October 3, 2026
Interview with sociologist Paul Freston discussing evangelical politics, religious misinformation, dominion theology, Bolsonaro-aligned movements, and tensions between Catholic and evangelical political identities.
115. | Folha de S.Paulo Staff | Folha de S.Paulo | October 1, 2026
Reports on the growth of dominion theology and Seven Mountains ideas in Brazilian evangelical politics and debates over secular government and religious diversity.
116. | Associated Press | AP | October 1, 2026
Examines religious identity, misinformation, evangelical politics, and Christian political rhetoric during Brazil's 2026 presidential campaign.
117. | Financial Times Staff | Financial Times | September 30, 2026
Reports on religion as a contested political identity during Brazil's election and tensions between Catholic and evangelical constituencies.
118. | Luís Alberto de Mendonça Sabanay | UOL | September 28, 2026
Argues for distinguishing legitimate religious participation in public affairs from political efforts that transform theological authority into state power.
119. | Various Authors | Social Sciences | July 8, 2026
Examines the development of Jair Bolsonaro's electoral relationship with Brazilian evangelicals and the broader transformation of Brazil's religious-political environment.
120. | Júlio Araújo and Wesley Vieira | Cadernos de Linguagem e Sociedade | 2025
Analyzes connections between far-right populist discourse, evangelical fundamentalism, and Bolsonarismo in Brazil.
121. | Edson Lugatti Silva Bissiati and Fabrício Roberto Costa Oliveira | O Público e o Privado | 2025
Studies right-wing religious populism during Bolsonaro's presidency, including evangelical appointments, public policy, political rhetoric, and relationships with religious leaders.
122. | Various Authors | Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora | February 7, 2023
Investigates Bolsonaro's relationship with evangelicals and considers when religious political participation becomes associated with populist intolerance and pressures on pluralist democracy.
123. | Edson Lugatti Silva Bissiati | Revista Neiba | 2022
Examines Bolsonaro's use of evangelical religious rhetoric during his political rise and the relationship between populism, Christianity, and Brazil's evangelical parliamentary movement.
Definitions, Measurement, Critiques, and Counterarguments
124. | Jesse Smith | Religious Studies Review | September 2026
Reviews disagreements over whether Christian nationalism is sufficiently distinct from conservatism, nationalism, religious traditionalism, and authoritarian personality measures.
125. | Jesse Smith | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | December 26, 2025
Tracks Christian-nationalist attitudes from 1996 through 2022 and argues that partisan and racial sorting helps explain why the issue became more politically salient even while some aggregate measures declined.
126. | Various Authors | Politics and Religion | 2025
Argues that researchers should distinguish between different Christian-nationalist traditions rather than assuming ideological uniformity.
127. | Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
Shows that public understandings of "Christian nation" and "Christian nationalism" vary considerably and are not reducible to a single authoritarian ideology.
128. | Nicholas T. Davis | Politics and Religion | July 11, 2022
Evaluates the widely used six-question Christian nationalism scale and identifies measurement problems involving political sorting, classification, and assumptions of linearity.
129. | Andrew R. Lewis | Sociology of Religion | January 7, 2021
Reviews one of the foundational empirical books in the field and situates its claims within ongoing debates about causal direction between religious identity, partisan politics, and political ideology.
Examines Christian nationalism during the COVID-19 pandemic and identifies both libertarian and authoritarian impulses within the ideology, illustrating that its relationship to government power is context-dependent.
131. | Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | March 19, 2020
Taking America Back for God analyzes Christian nationalism through the recurring themes of political power, boundaries defining legitimate membership, and hierarchical social order.
