Clean Water
Clean Water: Access, Safety, Pollution, Infrastructure, and Solutions
Clean water is fundamental to human health, food production, economic development, education, functioning communities, and healthy ecosystems. Yet access to safe water remains uneven around the world. Billions of people still lack safely managed drinking-water services, and many communities face additional problems involving inadequate sanitation, contaminated groundwater, aging infrastructure, industrial pollution, agricultural runoff, climate change, and emerging contaminants.
The challenge of clean water extends well beyond providing a physical supply of water. Water must be available in sufficient quantities, accessible to households and institutions, protected from contamination, properly treated, safely distributed, monitored for hazards, and supported by functioning sanitation and wastewater systems. Protecting rivers, lakes, wetlands, aquifers, and watersheds is also essential because pollution entering water at its source can ultimately become a drinking-water, ecological, and public-health problem.
Global Access to Clean Water and SDG 6
Access to clean water has expanded substantially during recent decades, but universal access remains unfinished. Global monitoring by the United Nations, World Health Organization, UNICEF, and other organizations shows that large populations still lack safely managed drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene services.
Sustainable Development Goal 6 calls for universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water and adequate sanitation while also addressing water quality, wastewater treatment, water-use efficiency, freshwater ecosystems, and integrated water-resource management. Progress toward these goals is closely connected with poverty reduction, public health, education, gender equality, nutrition, and economic development.
Water inequality is especially severe in rural communities, informal settlements, low-income regions, fragile states, and areas affected by conflict or climate extremes. Large infrastructure projects can expand access, but long-term success also depends on financing, maintenance, regulation, trained personnel, monitoring, and strong institutions.
Schools and health-care facilities demonstrate why water access must be understood as essential infrastructure. Schools without reliable water and sanitation can experience higher disease risks and lower attendance, while inadequate sanitation particularly affects girls and menstrual hygiene. Health-care facilities require reliable water, sanitation, hygiene, cleaning, waste disposal, and electricity to provide safe medical care and prevent infections.
Drinking Water Safety and Public Health
The safety of drinking water depends on the entire system extending from the original water source to the household tap. Rivers, reservoirs, lakes, springs, and groundwater aquifers can all supply drinking water, but each can be affected by natural or human-caused contamination.
Water can contain microbial, chemical, physical, and radiological hazards. Disease-causing organisms associated with unsafe water include E. coli, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Salmonella, norovirus, rotavirus, Shigella, and organisms responsible for diseases such as cholera. Even countries with sophisticated treatment systems continue to experience waterborne disease outbreaks when treatment, distribution, or infrastructure fails.
Chemical contamination includes naturally occurring substances such as arsenic and uranium as well as pollutants associated with agriculture, industry, mining, sewage, urban runoff, and consumer products. Nitrate, pesticides, lead, copper, disinfection byproducts, PFAS, and other chemicals can enter drinking-water supplies through different pathways.
Public-water systems generally use treatment, monitoring, regulation, and consumer reporting to manage these risks. Private wells can present additional challenges because they often lack the routine regulatory monitoring required for public systems. Regular testing is therefore especially important for households dependent on private groundwater wells.
Water-quality reports and surveillance systems provide another layer of protection. Consumer Confidence Reports can help residents understand detected contaminants, violations, treatment processes, and possible health concerns, while disease-surveillance programs help health authorities identify outbreaks and determine where treatment or distribution failures occurred.
Pollution and Emerging Contaminants
Water pollution comes from numerous sources. Industrial facilities, wastewater treatment plants, agriculture, livestock operations, mines, septic systems, roads, urban development, stormwater, and household activities can all introduce contaminants into rivers, lakes, groundwater, and coastal waters.
Some pollutants are discharged from identifiable facilities, while others originate from diffuse sources spread across a landscape. Rainfall and snowmelt can transport fertilizers, manure, pesticides, oil, sediment, bacteria, metals, trash, and other pollutants from farms, roads, lawns, and developed areas into waterways.
Nutrient pollution is particularly important. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can stimulate excessive algae growth, reduce dissolved oxygen, degrade aquatic ecosystems, and contribute to harmful algal blooms. Some blooms produce toxins that threaten people, wildlife, recreation, and drinking-water systems.
PFAS, often called "forever chemicals," have become a major drinking-water concern because of their environmental persistence and widespread use. Monitoring has detected PFAS in public water systems, groundwater, private wells, wastewater, and drinking-water sources. Their presence has created major debates over treatment costs, national standards, polluter responsibility, regulatory policy, and environmental justice.
Microplastics represent another emerging concern. Studies have detected microscopic plastic particles in drinking water and throughout the urban water cycle. Research is continuing into their sources, measurement, removal, associated chemicals, and possible health effects. Significant uncertainty remains regarding the magnitude of human-health risks.
Emerging-contaminant research illustrates an important principle of water protection: water systems must continually adapt as analytical methods improve and previously undetected pollutants become measurable.
Infrastructure, Lead, and System Reliability
Clean water depends on an extensive physical infrastructure of reservoirs, wells, treatment plants, pumps, storage facilities, service lines, distribution pipes, sewers, wastewater plants, stormwater systems, and monitoring equipment.
Much of this infrastructure is aging. Old pipes can leak, break, lose pressure, or allow contaminants to enter water systems. Lead service lines and older plumbing remain a major public-health concern because lead can enter drinking water through corrosion of pipes, fixtures, solder, and other plumbing materials.
The Flint water crisis became a prominent example of how failures in treatment decisions, corrosion control, infrastructure management, monitoring, and government oversight can combine to create a severe drinking-water emergency. Efforts to replace lead service lines across the United States reflect the broader challenge of modernizing water infrastructure before failures become public-health crises.
Infrastructure reliability also includes risks beyond physical deterioration. Cybersecurity has become an important issue as treatment and distribution systems increasingly depend on computerized controls. Cyberattacks on utilities could disrupt treatment or the delivery of safe water.
Wildfires present another infrastructure threat. Fire can damage pipes and equipment, reduce system pressure, introduce smoke and ash, and heat plastic water infrastructure in ways that may introduce chemicals into drinking-water networks.
Large investments are therefore needed not only to expand water access but also to maintain, replace, and modernize existing systems.
Groundwater, Agriculture, and Source Water Protection
Groundwater supplies drinking water to large populations and is especially important for rural communities and private wells. Groundwater contamination can originate from both natural geology and human activity.
Naturally occurring arsenic, fluoride, selenium, lithium, radium, uranium, and other substances can reach potentially significant concentrations in aquifers. Agricultural regions can face additional contamination from nitrate, fertilizers, pesticides, fumigants, manure, and other substances.
Agriculture is one of the major sources of nonpoint water pollution. Fertilizers, manure, pesticides, livestock operations, and eroded soil can contaminate both surface water and groundwater. Conservation practices can reduce these impacts by limiting runoff, erosion, nutrient losses, and the movement of contaminants into waterways.
Protecting water before it becomes contaminated is often more effective than relying entirely on treatment after pollution occurs. Source-water protection therefore focuses on the rivers, lakes, reservoirs, springs, aquifers, and watersheds that supply drinking-water systems.
Source-water programs can map drinking-water catchments, identify potential pollution sources, evaluate vulnerabilities, protect wetlands and forests, manage agricultural runoff, improve septic systems, control erosion, regulate land use, and encourage community participation.
Forests, wetlands, and healthy watersheds provide natural water-protection functions. Conserving these ecosystems can reduce sediment and pollutant loads while sometimes lowering the amount of treatment required before water can be safely consumed.
Climate Change and Water Resilience
Climate change is intensifying many existing water problems. Drought can reduce available supplies and concentrate pollutants, while floods can overwhelm sanitation systems, contaminate wells, damage treatment plants, and spread sewage and disease-causing organisms.
Changing rainfall patterns create additional uncertainty for communities dependent on seasonal rivers, reservoirs, shallow groundwater, or rainfall-fed water systems. Extreme heat can also affect water quality and infrastructure. Warmer water inside distribution systems can influence microbial growth, disinfectant effectiveness, corrosion, and the formation of treatment byproducts.
Climate-resilient water systems are therefore becoming increasingly important. Measures include drought-resistant supplies, improved storage, flood protection, stronger treatment facilities, protected groundwater, solar-powered pumps, diversified sources, improved watershed management, and infrastructure capable of remaining operational during disasters.
Examples from drought-prone areas demonstrate how solar-powered boreholes and expanded distribution systems can strengthen both water access and community resilience. Climate adaptation is increasingly being incorporated directly into national water, sanitation, and hygiene planning.
Water management and climate policy are closely connected because droughts, floods, ecosystems, agriculture, sanitation, and drinking-water systems all depend on the same underlying water resources.
Sanitation, Wastewater, and Water Reuse
Clean drinking water cannot be separated from sanitation and wastewater management. Untreated sewage can contaminate rivers, groundwater, coastal waters, and drinking-water sources, spreading pathogens and nutrients through the environment.
Safely managed sanitation requires systems capable of collecting, containing, transporting, treating, and disposing of human waste without exposing communities or ecosystems to dangerous contamination. Rapid urbanization has made this an especially significant infrastructure challenge.
Wastewater is increasingly being viewed not only as waste but also as a potential water resource. Properly treated wastewater can be reused for agriculture, industrial processes, landscaping, groundwater recharge, environmental restoration, and other applications.
Water recycling can reduce freshwater withdrawals while simultaneously reducing wastewater discharges. It can therefore become particularly valuable in drought-prone regions where conventional water supplies are under stress.
Potable reuse applies advanced treatment processes to reclaimed municipal wastewater so that it can ultimately become part of a drinking-water supply. Both direct and indirect potable reuse require rigorous treatment, monitoring, regulation, and public-health safeguards.
Buildings and communities can also reuse water for non-potable purposes such as toilet flushing, irrigation, landscaping, and vehicle washing. These decentralized systems can reduce demand for high-quality drinking water where potable-quality water is unnecessary.
The expansion of water reuse raises questions involving treatment technology, contaminants, health protection, regulation, financing, public acceptance, and long-term monitoring. Research is increasingly important because many rivers already contain some treated wastewater discharged by upstream communities, creating forms of indirect or "de facto" reuse even where formal recycling programs do not exist.
Rivers, Watersheds, Stormwater, and Green Infrastructure
Healthy rivers, lakes, wetlands, aquifers, and watersheds are essential components of clean-water systems. These ecosystems provide drinking water, wildlife habitat, recreation, groundwater recharge, flood protection, and numerous other ecological services.
Urban development can disrupt the natural water cycle. Roads, roofs, parking lots, and other impermeable surfaces prevent rainfall from soaking into the ground. Instead, water rapidly flows across developed surfaces, collecting oil, metals, sediment, trash, nutrients, bacteria, and other pollutants before entering storm drains and waterways.
Green infrastructure attempts to restore some of the landscape's natural ability to capture, filter, and absorb water. Rain gardens, bioswales, trees, wetlands, permeable pavement, infiltration areas, and restored floodplains can slow stormwater and reduce pollutant loads.
These systems can provide multiple benefits simultaneously. They can reduce flooding, sewer overflows, erosion, and polluted runoff while supporting groundwater recharge, urban vegetation, wildlife habitat, and more resilient communities.
Land-use decisions therefore have major water-quality consequences. Development patterns that preserve wetlands, vegetation, stream buffers, and infiltration areas can protect water resources, whereas poorly planned development can increase runoff and pollution.
Water-quality monitoring is equally important. Rivers and lakes must be tested for pollutants, pathogens, nutrients, harmful algal blooms, and ecological changes if governments and communities are to recognize deterioration and respond effectively.
Equity, Governance, Financing, and Water Law
Water problems are also questions of governance and social equity. Communities with limited financial or political resources may be more likely to experience inadequate infrastructure, contaminated water, unreliable service, or delayed environmental cleanup.
Persistent drinking-water problems in disadvantaged communities demonstrate that technical solutions alone are insufficient. Water systems require effective institutions, long-term financing, regulatory oversight, skilled workers, transparent monitoring, and mechanisms for holding polluters and public agencies accountable.
Environmental-justice concerns arise when pollution burdens fall disproportionately on communities already facing economic or environmental disadvantages. PFAS contamination, lead exposure, failing infrastructure, and inadequate sanitation can compound existing inequalities.
Financing is one of the largest obstacles to improving water systems. Drinking-water treatment plants, wastewater facilities, stormwater systems, lead-pipe replacement, groundwater projects, and pollution-control infrastructure can require investments ranging from millions to billions of dollars.
Programs such as state revolving funds and federal infrastructure loans provide long-term financing for drinking water, wastewater, stormwater, pollution prevention, and emerging-contaminant treatment. Investments in source-water protection and watershed conservation can complement investments in treatment infrastructure.
In the United States, the Clean Water Act provides the principal federal framework for controlling pollutant discharges into surface waters. Its implementation involves federal agencies, states, Tribes, courts, industries, municipalities, environmental organizations, and the public.
Debates over which streams and wetlands receive federal protection have major implications for water quality. Because small streams and wetlands are connected to larger rivers and drinking-water sources, changes in jurisdiction can affect pollution control far downstream.
Industrial pollution standards are another continuing issue. Legal disputes over wastewater from refineries, chemical plants, plastics facilities, slaughterhouses, sewage systems, and other industries demonstrate the continuing importance of enforcement and updated pollution-control requirements.
Building Sustainable Clean Water Systems
Long-term water security requires combining multiple strategies rather than relying on a single technological solution. Drinking-water treatment must be paired with pollution prevention, watershed conservation, wastewater management, infrastructure modernization, monitoring, and effective regulation.
Source protection can prevent pollutants from entering water supplies. Modern treatment can remove many contaminants that do reach water systems. Infrastructure replacement can reduce contamination and system failures. Wastewater treatment and recycling can protect waterways while creating additional water supplies. Green infrastructure can manage stormwater and reduce pollution before it reaches rivers.
Agricultural conservation can reduce nutrient, pesticide, manure, and sediment runoff. Strong monitoring programs can identify emerging threats. Public reporting can give communities information about their water. Adequate financing can ensure that treatment plants, pipes, wells, sewers, and other infrastructure remain functional over the long term.
Climate resilience must increasingly be incorporated throughout these systems. Water infrastructure designed for historical rainfall and temperature patterns may not adequately address future droughts, floods, wildfires, extreme heat, and other climate-related stresses.
Ultimately, clean water depends on protecting the entire water cycle—from watersheds and aquifers to treatment plants, distribution networks, households, sewers, wastewater facilities, and the rivers or groundwater to which water eventually returns.
Conclusion
Clean water is simultaneously a public-health necessity, an environmental resource, an infrastructure challenge, an economic requirement, and a question of social equity. Although enormous progress has been made in expanding access to safe water and sanitation, major gaps remain.
The threats are diverse. Pathogens, lead, arsenic, nitrate, pesticides, PFAS, microplastics, industrial pollution, sewage, agricultural runoff, harmful algal blooms, failing infrastructure, drought, floods, and other pressures can all affect water safety.
The available solutions are equally diverse. They include universal water and sanitation services, stronger treatment and monitoring, replacement of aging infrastructure, protection of groundwater and watersheds, reduction of agricultural and industrial pollution, wastewater treatment and reuse, green infrastructure, climate-resilient systems, adequate financing, strong regulation, and meaningful public oversight.
Clean-water policy is therefore most effective when drinking water, sanitation, wastewater, ecosystems, land use, agriculture, infrastructure, climate adaptation, public health, and environmental protection are treated as parts of one interconnected system. Protecting water at every stage of that system is essential to ensuring reliable and safe water for present and future generations.
Clean Water: Categorized, Deduplicated, and Reverse Sorted by Date
Global Clean Water Access, SDG 6, and WASH
1. United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 Synthesis Report on Water and Sanitation 2026
| UN-Water | United Nations | 2026-06-12
The UN's ten-year assessment of SDG 6 examines progress toward universal clean water and sanitation and identifies priorities for accelerating action beyond 2026.
2. UN-Water Annual Report 2025
| UN-Water | United Nations | 2026-06-01
The report reviews international efforts to coordinate water policy, sanitation programs, climate resilience, monitoring, financing, and preparations for the 2026 UN Water Conference.
3. GLAAS 2025 Report: State of Systems for Drinking-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
| WHO and UNICEF | World Health Organization | 2026-01-26
The global GLAAS assessment examines governance, regulation, financing, monitoring, workforce capacity, and institutional systems needed to achieve universal WASH.
4. Expanding Access to Clean Water and Sanitation in Burundi
| World Bank Group | World Bank | 2025-12-10
New water treatment and distribution infrastructure is intended to provide hundreds of thousands of Burundians with safer and more reliable water.
5. Strengthening Sustainable WASH Access and Resilience in Ethiopia
| World Bank | World Bank | 2025-10-23
Ethiopia's integrated WASH programs illustrate how large-scale investment can improve water supply, sanitation, public health, and climate resilience.
6. Accelerating Access to Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Eastern and Southern Africa
| World Bank | World Bank | 2025-09-30
A regional program aims to expand climate-resilient WASH services to tens of millions of people across Eastern and Southern Africa.
7. WHO Global Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Annual Report 2024
| World Health Organization | WHO | 2025-09-08
WHO's annual report reviews progress in drinking water, sanitation, hygiene, regulation, climate-resilient WASH, health-care facilities, and emergency response around the world.
8. Five Million People in the Pacific Still Lack Access to Basic Drinking Water Services
| WHO and UNICEF | World Health Organization | 2025-08-30
Pacific communities continue to face major inequalities in drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene access, particularly in rural and vulnerable populations.
9. Fast Facts: 1 in 4 People Globally Still Lack Access to Safe Drinking Water
| WHO and UNICEF | UNICEF | 2025-08-26
Global monitoring shows that billions of people still lack safely managed drinking water despite substantial progress since 2015.
10. Progress on Household Drinking-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene 2000–2024
| WHO and UNICEF | World Health Organization | 2025-08-26
Billions have gained improved water and sanitation services since 2000, but large inequalities remain between countries, income groups, rural and urban populations, and fragile communities.
11. UN-Water Annual Report 2024
| UN-Water | United Nations | 2025-06-24
UN-Water describes efforts to integrate clean water and sanitation with public health, climate action, poverty reduction, biodiversity, food security, and sustainable development.
12. Bringing Clean Water and Sanitation to the Underserved in East Asia and the Pacific
| World Bank | World Bank | 2025-03-27
Projects in Cambodia, Laos, and Papua New Guinea demonstrate connections between water access, sanitation, nutrition, education, and poverty reduction.
13. Sustainable Development Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
| United Nations | United Nations Statistics Division | 2025
Global SDG data show continued improvements in water and sanitation alongside major shortfalls in wastewater treatment, water quality, and universal access.
14. SDG Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
UNICEF tracks global progress toward universal safe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene services under Sustainable Development Goal 6.
15. Ensuring Access to Clean Water Worldwide
Safe drinking water is fundamental to children's health, education, nutrition, safety, and long-term development.
16. AQUASTAT Water Data Snapshot 2025
| Maria Hernández Lagana and Patricia Mejias Moreno | Food and Agriculture Organization | 2025
AQUASTAT provides global indicators covering freshwater resources, agricultural withdrawals, irrigation, water-use efficiency, and water stress.
17. Evaluation of WHO's Contribution to WASH and Health
| World Health Organization | WHO | 2024-11
The evaluation reviews WHO's efforts to strengthen safe drinking water, sanitation, hygiene, health protection, and national WASH systems.
Climate Change, Drought, Flooding, and Water Resilience
18. Global Annual Results Report 2025: Water, Climate and Environment
UNICEF documents large-scale expansion of safe water and climate-resilient WASH services while highlighting continuing global access gaps.
19. Rising With the Tide: How WASH Powers Community Climate Resilience
| WaterAid | WaterAid | 2025-09-22
Climate-resilient water, sanitation, and hygiene systems can strengthen health, livelihoods, ecosystems, education, and communities facing extreme weather.
20. Climate Rationale for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in Nigeria
| UNICEF Nigeria | UNICEF | 2025-09
Nigeria faces major climate risks requiring water and sanitation infrastructure designed to continue functioning through floods, droughts, and other shocks.
21. Global Annual Results Report 2024: Water, Climate and Environment
UNICEF reports progress in safe water, sanitation, climate-resilient WASH infrastructure, solar-powered water systems, and humanitarian water services.
22. Warming Drinking Water Distribution Systems in the Context of Climate Change
| Jesse Limaheluw and Monique van der Aa | Journal of Water and Health | 2025-07-31
Higher water temperatures can accelerate disinfectant decay, alter microbial communities, influence metal release from pipes, and change disinfection-byproduct formation.
23. Strengthening Adaptation and Resilience: Pan-Africa WASH and Climate Strategy
| WaterAid | WaterAid | 2025-06-12
WaterAid calls for African climate and WASH policies to be integrated so communities can better withstand droughts, floods, and changing rainfall.
24. Strengthening Water Resource Management for Climate Resilience in West Africa
| WaterAid | WaterAid | 2025-05-06
Integrated water-resource management can connect drinking water, agriculture, ecosystems, sanitation, and livelihoods in drought-prone regions.
25. Safe Water and Sanitation Restored After Devastating Floods
| UNICEF Guinea | UNICEF | 2025-04-29
Solar water points, repaired wells, disinfection, and sanitation restoration helped communities recover after severe flooding contaminated water supplies.
26. From Drought to Hope: Advancing Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Turkana County
| Yelin Heo | UNICEF Kenya | 2025-04-17
Solar-powered boreholes and expanded water systems in drought-prone Turkana illustrate how resilient infrastructure can improve health and livelihoods.
27. Integrating Climate-Resilient WASH Into National Climate Plans
| WaterAid | WaterAid | 2025-03-13
Guidance explains how governments can incorporate resilient water and sanitation systems into national adaptation and climate commitments.
28. Framework for Strengthening WASH Climate Resilience
| UNICEF Indonesia | UNICEF | 2025-03
Indonesia's framework integrates climate adaptation into drinking water and sanitation planning, investment, regulation, and infrastructure management.
29. Climate Change and Waterborne Diseases in Temperate Regions: A Systematic Review
| Eunice A. Salubi et al. | Journal of Water and Health | 2025-01
Changing temperature, precipitation, flooding, and other climate conditions can alter the occurrence and transmission of waterborne disease.
30. Contaminated Drinking Water Is a Growing Concern for Cities Facing Wildfires
| Associated Press | AP News | 2025-01
Wildfires can damage water systems, reduce pressure, heat plastic pipes, and introduce smoke, ash, chemicals, and other contaminants into drinking-water networks.
Drinking Water Safety, Public Health, and Waterborne Disease
31. Sanitary Inspection Package: Household Drinking-Water Practices
| World Health Organization | WHO | 2026-07-22
Practical sanitary inspections help households identify contamination risks and improve safe storage, handling, operation, and maintenance of drinking water.
32. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth Edition Incorporating the First, Second and Third Addenda
| World Health Organization | WHO | 2026-06-17
WHO's drinking-water guidelines emphasize health-based standards, water safety planning, contamination prevention, treatment, monitoring, and independent surveillance.
33. Safe Drinking Water: What's in Your Drinking Water?
| Amanda MacMillan | Natural Resources Defense Council | 2026-01-26
The overview examines lead, PFAS, arsenic, nitrate, pathogens, pesticides, radioactive contaminants, and other drinking-water threats.
34. Unsafe Drinking Water and Human Health: A Global Umbrella Review
| Researchers | Peer-Reviewed Research | 2026
Evidence links unsafe drinking water with infectious disease and numerous chronic health outcomes while finding substantial benefits from effective water-treatment interventions.
35. Seasonal Microbial and Physicochemical Variations in Shared Water Resources in Southwestern Kenya
| Researchers | Environmental Health Insights | 2026
Monitoring of shared surface-water sources found extensive bacterial contamination and strong seasonal changes, illustrating clean-water challenges in arid and semi-arid communities.
36. Bottled Water vs. Tap Water
| NRDC | Natural Resources Defense Council | 2025-10-24
Bottled water is not automatically safer than tap water and carries substantial environmental costs associated with plastic production and waste.
37. Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene-Related Emergencies and Outbreaks
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2025-06-27
Disasters can interrupt treatment systems and contaminate drinking water, requiring emergency supplies, boiling, disinfection, advisories, and public-health surveillance.
38. Top 10 Drinking-Water and Sanitation Related Pathogens
| World Health Organization | WHO | 2025-06-20
E. coli, cholera, Shigella, rotavirus, Cryptosporidium, and other pathogens remain major causes of disease associated with unsafe drinking water and inadequate sanitation.
39. Waterborne Disease Surveillance Reports
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2025-05-29
Surveillance data help identify pathogens, water-system failures, and environmental conditions responsible for outbreaks and guide prevention strategies.
40. Waterborne Disease in the United States
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2025-05-29
Waterborne pathogens continue to cause emergency visits, hospitalizations, deaths, and substantial health-care costs even where modern water-treatment infrastructure exists.
41. Waterborne Outbreaks Summary Reports
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2025-05-28
National outbreak reports track illnesses associated with drinking water, recreational water, environmental exposure, and failures in water treatment or distribution.
42. About Waterborne Disease Surveillance
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2025-05-28
U.S. health departments use national surveillance systems to investigate and report outbreaks associated with drinking water and other water exposures.
43. Contaminated Drinking Water Facilitates Escherichia coli Strain-Sharing Within Households
| Daehyun D. Kim et al. | Nature Microbiology | 2025-05-01
Research in Nairobi informal settlements found evidence that contaminated drinking water contributes to transmission of E. coli strains between household members.
44. About Drinking Water
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2025-01-30
Drinking-water safety depends on source-water quality, treatment, distribution systems, and monitoring for harmful microbes and chemicals.
45. Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2025-01-30
Arsenic, lead, copper, nitrate, PFAS, and other chemicals can enter drinking-water supplies through natural and human-caused pathways.
46. Enteric Pathogens in Humans, Domesticated Animals, and Drinking Water in Nairobi
| Sean W. Daly et al. | Environmental Science & Technology | 2024-11-26
Sampling in a low-income Nairobi community demonstrates how contaminated drinking water, humans, animals, and the surrounding environment can share enteric pathogens.
47. Safe Drinking Water: Key Elements for Country Action
| World Health Organization | WHO | 2024-10
WHO recommends water-safety planning, strong regulation, surveillance, contamination prevention, treatment, and improved access as core drinking-water strategies.
48. Drinking Water Facts and Stats
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2024-08-06
U.S. drinking-water treatment prevents substantial disease, but contaminated water continues to cause illnesses and outbreaks every year.
49. Germs That Can Contaminate Tap Water
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2024-08-02
Pathogens including Cryptosporidium, Giardia, norovirus, Salmonella, and E. coli can contaminate drinking water and cause disease outbreaks.
50. What Causes Tap Water Contamination
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2024-07-31
Drinking water can become contaminated through agriculture, industry, sewage, stormwater, failing infrastructure, natural geology, and microbial pollution.
51. Water Quality and Your Health
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2024-07-16
The CDC explains how water sources, treatment practices, contamination, and infrastructure influence the health risks associated with tap water.
52. How to Read Drinking Water Quality Reports
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2024-05-01
Consumer Confidence Reports allow residents to identify detected contaminants, violations, treatment information, and potential health concerns in public water.
53. Drinking Water Advisories: An Overview
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2024-03-04
Boil-water and other advisories protect communities when drinking water may contain dangerous microbes, chemicals, toxins, or radioactive materials.
54. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Small Water Supplies
| World Health Organization | WHO | 2024-02-15
Small water systems often face technical, financial, staffing, and monitoring challenges, making preventive risk management and sanitary inspections especially important.
55. Drinking Water Sources: An Overview
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2024-01-10
Rivers, reservoirs, lakes, springs, and groundwater aquifers provide drinking water and require protection against contamination at the source.
56. Guidelines for Testing Well Water
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2024
Private wells require regular testing because they generally lack the regulatory monitoring applied to public drinking-water systems.
Lead, Aging Pipes, and Drinking-Water Infrastructure
57. Drinking Water in Your Home
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-03-02
EPA provides information on private wells, household water testing, filtration, bottled water, and protecting drinking-water sources.
58. About Lead in Drinking Water
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | 2025-08-20
Lead can enter drinking water through service lines, plumbing fixtures, solder, and corrosion, creating particular risks for children.
59. Voluntary Lead Testing Leaves Kids Exposed
| Corinne Bell | Natural Resources Defense Council | 2025-06-02
Research argues that voluntary testing alone inadequately protects children from lead exposure in schools and childcare facilities.
60. Flint Drinking Water Emergency Order Ends After Compliance Improvements
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-05-19
Flint's long-running drinking-water crisis demonstrates the importance of corrosion control, monitoring, infrastructure replacement, and regulatory oversight.
61. Worrisome Lead Levels in Drinking Water Systems Serving More Than 250 Million People
| NRDC | Natural Resources Defense Council | 2025-04-17
NRDC analysis highlights widespread reported lead detections and continuing concerns about exposure through aging U.S. drinking-water infrastructure.
62. EPA Requires Replacement of Lead Pipes Within 10 Years
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-10-08
EPA's Lead and Copper Rule Improvements established major requirements for identifying and replacing lead service lines and strengthening water testing.
63. Settlement Requires $138 Million Drinking Water Filtration Plant in Westchester County
| U.S. EPA and U.S. Department of Justice | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-06-24
A federal settlement illustrates how Safe Drinking Water Act enforcement can compel infrastructure improvements when systems fail water-quality requirements.
64. EPA Outlines Cybersecurity Measures to Protect Drinking Water
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-05-20
Cyberattacks on water utilities have become an emerging clean-water risk because compromised systems can disrupt treatment and safe water delivery.
65. Ten Years After Flint, the Fight to Replace Lead Pipes Continues
| Emily Kwong and Pien Huang | NPR / NLM | 2024-04-26
A decade after the Flint crisis, millions of Americans remain connected to water systems through aging lead service lines.
66. Lead in Drinking Water Is Still a Problem—Especially in Chicago
| Pien Huang | NPR | 2024-04-01
Chicago's extensive network of lead service lines illustrates persistent infrastructure and environmental-justice challenges surrounding lead exposure.
PFAS and "Forever Chemicals"
67. What to Expect in Key EPA Cases on PFAS and Lead in Drinking Water
| Erik D. Olson | NRDC | 2026-05-18
Pending federal litigation could influence the future of national protections against PFAS and lead contamination in drinking water.
68. PFAS Quietly Contaminate Private Drinking Water Wells
| Michael Phillis and Helen Wieffering | Associated Press / PBS Wisconsin | 2026-02-02
Private well owners can remain unaware of PFAS contamination because private wells are not subject to the same monitoring rules as public systems.
69. PFAS in Drinking Water: What You Need to Know
| Sydney Evans and Tasha Stoiber | Environmental Working Group | 2025-09-18
EWG reviews PFAS contamination, drinking-water treatment, household filtration, and the evolving federal regulatory framework.
70. New Maps Show Most Congressional Districts Have a PFAS Problem
| Erik D. Olson et al. | NRDC | 2025-07-16
EPA monitoring data reveal widespread PFAS detection across U.S. drinking-water systems and congressional districts.
71. Sewage Sludge and Wastewater Plants Tied to PFAS Pollution
| Tom Perkins | The Guardian | 2025-07-04
Testing near sewage plants and land where biosolids were applied found elevated PFAS levels downstream, highlighting wastewater's role in redistributing persistent chemicals.
72. EPA Plans Rollback of Some PFAS Drinking Water Limits
| CBS News and Associated Press | CBS News | 2025-05-15
Federal plans to reconsider several PFAS standards reopened debate over public-health protections, compliance costs, and contamination responsibility.
73. EPA to Repeal Key Protections Against PFAS in Tap Water
| NRDC | Natural Resources Defense Council | 2025-05-14
NRDC criticizes federal plans to reconsider several PFAS limits and delay compliance requirements for remaining standards.
74. Decision Looming on First PFAS Drinking Water Limits
| Michael Phillis | Associated Press | 2025-04-30
Communities facing PFAS contamination illustrate the difficult balance among health protections, treatment costs, polluter responsibility, and utility finances.
75. Drinking Water Sources in England Polluted With Forever Chemicals
| Helena Horton et al. | The Guardian | 2025-01-16
Testing found PFAS contamination in raw drinking-water sources across England, raising questions about chemical regulation, monitoring, treatment costs, and polluter responsibility.
76. Millions May Rely on Groundwater Contaminated With PFAS
| U.S. Geological Survey | USGS | 2024-10-24
National modeling indicates that detectable PFAS may occur in groundwater supplying drinking water to tens of millions of Americans.
77. First National Drinking Water Standard for PFAS
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-04-10
EPA established the first nationally enforceable limits for several PFAS chemicals in public drinking-water systems.
78. Dirty Water: PFAS in Environmental Justice Communities
| Avinash Kar, Anna Reade and Susan Lee | NRDC | 2024-02-21
PFAS contamination can compound existing environmental and socioeconomic burdens in communities already facing disproportionate pollution exposure.
Microplastics and Emerging Contaminants
79. Occurrence, Sampling, Identification and Characterization of Microplastics in Tap Water
| Researchers | Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety | 2025
A systematic review and meta-analysis evaluates how frequently microplastics occur in tap water and how sampling and analytical methods influence reported concentrations.
80. Microplastics Hack the Water Supply System: What It Means for Water Safety and Human Health
| Researchers | Water Research | 2025
Microplastics can persist and transform throughout drinking-water systems while carrying chemicals, releasing additives, and potentially increasing formation of other contaminants.
81. Microplastics in the Urban Water Cycle
| Andrea G. Capodaglio | Science of the Total Environment | 2024-12-01
The review examines microplastics across drinking water and wastewater systems while assessing the evidence for risks and removal technologies.
82. Drinking-Water Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Asian Countries
| Rinaldy Jose Nathanael et al. | Heliyon | 2024-10-12
Rapid industrialization and urbanization are increasing concern about emerging contaminants entering drinking-water systems across Asia.
83. Removing PFAS From Tap Water With Point-of-Use Treatment
| Researchers | Environmental Research | 2024-10-10
Activated carbon, ion exchange, and reverse osmosis can reduce PFAS in household water, though performance depends on technology and maintenance.
84. PFAS Contamination of Drinking-Water Sources in Africa
| Adewale Adewuyi and Qilin Li | Chemosphere | 2024-10
Evidence of PFAS in African surface water, wastewater, bottled water, and tap water highlights emerging monitoring and treatment needs.
85. PFAS in Drinking Water: Regulation and Mitigation in Developing Countries
| Adewale Adewuyi and Qilin Li | Eco-Environment & Health | 2024-06-26
Developing countries face major research, monitoring, treatment, and regulatory challenges as PFAS contamination becomes increasingly documented.
86. Microplastics in Drinking Water: Methods, Occurrence, Sources, and Risks
| Ling Yang et al. | Environmental Pollution | 2024-05-01
A systematic review finds widespread microplastic detection in drinking water while emphasizing major uncertainties in measurement and human-health risks.
87. PFAS Distribution and Transformation in Drinking-Water Sources
| Heying Zhu et al. | Science of the Total Environment | 2024-03-15
PFAS movement through surface water, groundwater, sediments, and environmental processes complicates protection of drinking-water sources.
88. Microplastics and Associated Chemicals in Drinking Water
| Noor Haleem et al. | Science of the Total Environment | 2024-02-20
Microplastics can carry or release additives and other chemicals, creating additional questions about exposure through drinking water.
89. Safeguarding Drinking Water: Contamination, Treatment, and Risk Assessment
| Debajyoti Kundu et al. | Environmental Monitoring and Assessment | 2024-01-20
The review surveys biological, chemical, physical, and radiological drinking-water pollutants and approaches for treatment and risk assessment.
90. Removing Microplastics From Drinking Water by Coagulation
| Researchers at Chongqing Jiaotong University et al. | Environmental Pollution | 2024
Research reviews how conventional coagulation processes can remove microplastics and which treatment conditions most strongly influence effectiveness.
91. U.S. Drinking Water Quality: Exposure Risk Profiles for Seven Legacy and Emerging Contaminants
| Researchers | Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology | 2023
The review examines arsenic, disinfection byproducts, fracking-related pollutants, lead, nitrate, PFAS, and uranium alongside broader weaknesses in U.S. drinking-water protection.
Groundwater, Wells, Arsenic, Nitrate, and Pesticides
92. Elevated Geogenic Contaminants Common in U.S. Drinking-Water Aquifers
| U.S. Geological Survey | USGS | 2026-02-09
Arsenic, lithium, radium, uranium, and other naturally occurring substances can reach potentially concerning concentrations in groundwater used for drinking.
93. U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Network—Groundwater 2024
| Bruce D. Lindsey, James A. Kingsbury and Leah M. Santangelo | USGS | 2025-08-04
The national monitoring network tracks nutrients, trace elements, PFAS, pesticides, volatile compounds, radionuclides, and microbes in groundwater.
94. Sources of Water Pollution
| Environmental Working Group | EWG | 2025-02
Agriculture, industry, aging pipes, disinfection, mining, and naturally occurring geology all contribute contaminants to drinking-water sources.
95. A Review on Arsenic Contamination in Drinking Water
| Bashdar Abuzed Sadee et al. | RSC Advances | 2025-01-27
Arsenic-contaminated groundwater threatens millions of people, prompting research into adsorption, ion exchange, precipitation, electrocoagulation, membranes, and biological removal technologies.
96. Multidecadal Change in Pesticide Concentrations in the Nation's Groundwater
| U.S. Geological Survey | USGS | 2025
Long-term monitoring suggests declines in some groundwater pesticide concentrations while highlighting persistent contamination concerns for drinking-water supplies.
97. Groundwater Quality in the Eastern Sacramento Valley and Adjacent Foothills
| George L. Bennett V | U.S. Geological Survey | 2024-11-01
Testing of domestic groundwater found arsenic, pesticides, PFAS, bacteria, and other contaminants affecting portions of California's drinking-water aquifers.
98. Groundwater Quality in the Southeastern San Joaquin Valley
| Karen R. Burow, Jennifer L. Shelton and Miranda S. Fram | U.S. Geological Survey | 2024-04-25
Agricultural fumigants, pesticides, nitrate, and naturally occurring contaminants affect groundwater used for drinking in California's San Joaquin Valley.
99. California GAMA Domestic-Supply Groundwater Assessment
| Jennifer L. Shelton and Elias Tejeda | U.S. Geological Survey | 2024-03-14
California's groundwater monitoring program evaluates contaminants affecting millions of residents who depend on domestic wells and small water systems.
100. Arsenic and Other Geogenic Contaminants in Global Groundwater
| Researchers / USGS | Nature Reviews Earth & Environment | 2024-03-12
Naturally occurring arsenic, fluoride, selenium, and uranium can make groundwater unsafe for hundreds of millions of people worldwide.
101. Nitrate Exposure Among Iowa Farmers Using Private Wells
| T. Skalaban et al. | Science of the Total Environment / USGS | 2024-02-16
Agricultural nitrate contamination can make private well water an important component of total nitrate exposure for rural households.
102. Groundwater Quality in the Mojave Basin Domestic-Supply Aquifer
| Krishangi D. Groover, Miranda S. Fram and Zeno F. Levy | U.S. Geological Survey | 2024
The Mojave Desert study assesses chemical conditions in groundwater aquifers used by households relying on private drinking-water wells.
Rivers, Lakes, Ecosystems, and Source-Water Protection
103. Sanitary Inspection Package: Surface Water Sources and Intakes
| World Health Organization | WHO | 2026-07-22
Protecting rivers, reservoirs, and surface-water intakes from contamination is a critical first barrier in safe drinking-water systems.
104. Assess, Plan, and Protect Source Water
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-07-06
Effective source-water programs map drinking-water catchments, identify contamination threats, evaluate vulnerability, implement protections, and periodically update plans.
105. Delineate the Source Water Protection Area
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-05-28
Mapping the land and groundwater areas feeding drinking-water intakes helps communities identify where pollution prevention efforts will have the greatest benefit.
106. Source Water Protection Practices
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-02-26
Wetland conservation, erosion control, agricultural practices, stormwater management, chemical-storage safeguards, and septic management can protect water supplies.
107. Source Water Protection Planning
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-02-17
Watershed conservation, best management practices, land-use controls, public education, and partnerships can prevent contamination before it reaches water-treatment facilities.
108. How Can You Help Protect Source Water?
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-02-12
Individuals and community organizations can participate in watershed planning, cleanups, pollution prevention, monitoring, and local water-protection programs.
109. Drinking Water Mapping Application to Protect Source Waters
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-01-08
DWMAPS allows communities to identify watersheds, pollution sources, impaired waterways, and other risks upstream of drinking-water systems.
110. Drinking Water: Trends in Quality and Human Health
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026
EPA examines drinking-water contaminants, source-water pollution, treatment, disease prevention, and national indicators of water quality.
111. Safe Water Resources Research Milestones
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026
EPA research covers PFAS treatment, harmful algal blooms, disinfection byproducts, water infrastructure, and other emerging drinking-water challenges.
112. Basic Information About Source Water Protection
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026
Protecting rivers, lakes, reservoirs, springs, aquifers, and watersheds can reduce contamination risks while lowering drinking-water treatment costs.
113. Protecting Source Water With the Clean Water and Drinking Water State Revolving Funds
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-11-06
Federal-state financing programs can support land conservation, pollution prevention, watershed restoration, and other measures that safeguard drinking-water sources.
114. Research and Reports on Source Water Protection
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-10-08
Research demonstrates that forests, watersheds, land management, and pollution prevention can protect drinking-water sources and reduce treatment requirements.
115. FITS: Funding Integration Tool for Source Water
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-07
The tool connects communities with federal programs capable of financing watershed conservation and other drinking-water source protection projects.
116. Water Quality
| United Nations Environment Programme | UNEP | 2025-05-23
UNEP emphasizes monitoring, data, citizen science, policy, and cross-sector management as essential tools for protecting global freshwater quality.
117. Six Hazardous Contaminants in Drinking Water
| Environmental Working Group | EWG | 2025-03
PFAS, nitrate, disinfection byproducts, and other contaminants illustrate the diverse chemical threats that can occur in treated drinking water.
118. Tap Water Truths: Your Questions, Our Answers
| Environmental Working Group | EWG | 2025-03
EWG addresses common questions about water testing, contaminants, treatment, filtration, regulations, and understanding municipal water-quality reports.
119. What's in Dallas' Drinking Water?
| Environmental Working Group | EWG | 2025-02-26
Dallas provides a case study of how multiple contaminants, including PFAS, nitrate, and lead, can occur within a major metropolitan water system.
120. What's in Los Angeles' Drinking Water?
| Environmental Working Group | EWG | 2025-02-26
Los Angeles illustrates challenges involving arsenic, nitrate, disinfection byproducts, lead risks, and complex urban drinking-water infrastructure.
121. Progress on Ambient Water Quality – 2024 Update
| UN-Water | United Nations | 2024-08-25
Global monitoring shows that many rivers, lakes, and groundwater resources remain polluted while numerous countries still lack adequate systems for measuring water quality.
122. Understanding Great Lakes Harmful Algal Blooms Through Water Sampling
| Gabrielle Farina | NOAA GLERL | 2024-07-22
Harmful algal blooms can produce toxins, damage ecosystems, threaten recreation, and create complications for drinking-water treatment.
123. Harmful Algal Bloom Archived Data
| NOAA | National Centers for Environmental Information | 2024
NOAA datasets support research and monitoring of harmful algal blooms that can affect human health, wildlife, and water quality.
124. World Water Quality Assessment
| United Nations Environment Programme | UNEP | 2021
The global initiative addresses major information gaps concerning pollution, pathogens, freshwater degradation, and the condition of water resources.
Sanitation, Wastewater, and Water Reuse
125. Progress on Water, Sanitation, Hygiene, Environmental Cleaning and Waste Management in Health Care Facilities 2015–2025
| WHO and UNICEF | UN-Water | 2026-08-20
Large numbers of health-care facilities still lack basic sanitation, water, hygiene, environmental cleaning, and safe health-care waste management.
126. Reusing Water for Potable Applications Resources
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-08
Advanced treatment can allow municipal wastewater to become a reliable drinking-water source while helping drought-prone communities diversify water supplies.
127. National Water Reuse Action Plan Quarterly Updates
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-07-28
EPA's ongoing updates document research, regulations, financing, technology, and partnerships intended to expand safe water reuse across the United States.
128. Regulations and End-Use Specifications Explorer
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-07-07
REUSExplorer allows comparison of state rules governing recycled water used for drinking, irrigation, industry, landscaping, livestock, and other applications.
129. Water Reuse and Recycling
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-06-26
Reclaiming treated wastewater and other water sources can increase water security while supplying agriculture, industry, landscapes, environmental restoration, and drinking-water systems.
130. Basic Information About Water Reuse
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-06-05
Water recycling can provide reliable supplies during drought while reducing freshwater withdrawals, wastewater discharges, and nutrient pollution.
131. Onsite Non-Potable Water Reuse Resources
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-06
Buildings and districts can treat greywater and other local water sources for toilet flushing, landscaping, vehicle washing, and similar non-drinking purposes.
132. Water Reuse Interagency Working Group
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-04-03
Federal agencies coordinate financing, research, regulation, and technical assistance to accelerate adoption of water recycling technologies.
133. National Water Reuse Action Plan: Annual Progress Updates
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-03-06
Annual reports track implementation of national efforts to make water recycling more practical, scientifically supported, and economically viable.
134. Managing Chemical Water Safety in Agrifood Systems
| FAO and WHO | Food and Agriculture Organization | 2026-03-02
International experts discuss methods for identifying, prioritizing, assessing, and reducing chemical hazards in water used throughout agricultural food systems.
135. Select Outputs From the National Water Reuse Action Plan
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026
Research products address regulations, public health, aquifer recharge, pharmaceuticals, Tribal water needs, financing, and other water-reuse challenges.
136. FAO/WHO Release Report on Chemical Food Safety Risks From Water Use in Agrifood Systems
| FAO and WHO | Food and Agriculture Organization | 2025-12-22
Increased reliance on alternative water supplies makes chemical contamination an increasingly important consideration for agricultural water reuse and food safety.
137. Potable Water Reuse and Drinking Water
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-12-19
Direct and indirect potable reuse use advanced treatment systems to convert reclaimed municipal wastewater into water suitable for drinking-water supplies.
138. EPA Announces Over $351 Million to Fort Worth for Water and Recycling Infrastructure Projects
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-12-15
Fort Worth plans a new water reclamation facility that will treat wastewater for reuse in industrial operations and irrigation.
139. Domestic Wastewater Treatment Briefing Note 2025
| UN-Water | United Nations | 2025-12-02
Updated global estimates track wastewater generation, sewer collection, septic systems, treatment, and the proportion of household wastewater that is safely managed.
140. Reliable and Inclusive Urban Sanitation: A Driver of Growth
| Saroj Kumar Jha, Sanyu Lutalo and Nishtha Mehta | World Bank | 2025-11-04
Safely managed sanitation supports public health, education, economic productivity, urban development, and environmental protection.
141. Essential Services for Quality Care: WASH in Health Care Facilities
| WHO and UNICEF | World Health Organization | 2025-09-24
Many health facilities still lack adequate water, sanitation, hygiene, waste disposal, and electricity, undermining infection prevention and patient safety.
142. No Hygiene, No Health: Fixing the Foundations of Care
| Saroj Kumar Jha, Juan Pablo Uribe and David Whineray | World Bank | 2025-06-24
Health systems cannot function safely without reliable drinking water, sanitation, hygiene, waste management, and other basic infrastructure.
143. Summary Report of the Ad Hoc FAO/WHO Expert Meeting: Water Quality in Agrifood Systems and Food Safety
| FAO and WHO | Food and Agriculture Organization | 2025-06-06
The meeting identified priorities for assessing and controlling chemical hazards when freshwater, wastewater, and alternative water sources are used in food production.
144. Ad Hoc FAO/WHO Expert Meeting on Water Quality in Agrifood Systems and Food Safety
| FAO and WHO | Food and Agriculture Organization | 2025-05-22
Experts examined chemical contaminants in water used for irrigation, livestock, aquaculture, food processing, cleaning, and drinking.
145. English Water Companies Released Sewage for 3.6 Million Hours in 2024
| Reuters | Reuters | 2025-03-27
Record sewage discharges into English waterways intensified debate over aging infrastructure, utility investment, regulation, and protection of rivers and coastal waters.
146. National Water Reuse Action Plan: Five Years of Progress
| U.S. EPA and Partners | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-03
Water recycling and reuse can supplement drinking-water supplies, reduce pressure on freshwater resources, and support agriculture and industry.
147. National Water Reuse Action Plan: Celebrating Five Years of Progress
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-03
Five years of the Water Reuse Action Plan produced dozens of collaborative projects involving utilities, governments, researchers, industries, and nonprofit organizations.
148. Progress on Wastewater Treatment – 2024 Update
| UN-Water | United Nations | 2024-08-25
Untreated municipal and industrial wastewater remains a major obstacle to achieving the global goal of reducing pollution and improving water quality by 2030.
149. Occurrence and Implications of De Facto Water Reuse on Drinking Water Supplies
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-06-27
Many drinking-water sources already contain treated wastewater discharged upstream, creating a need to better understand contaminants and health risks from unplanned reuse.
150. Improving Water and Sanitation in Malawi's Urban Schools
| World Bank | World Bank | 2024-03-13
Reliable school water and sanitation facilities reduce disease risk, improve attendance, and are especially important for girls' education.
151. Empowering Girls With Clean Water and Sanitation in Ethiopia's Schools
| World Bank | World Bank | 2024-01-19
School WASH investments demonstrate how clean water and safe sanitation can improve health, dignity, menstrual hygiene, and educational participation.
Agriculture, Nutrients, and Polluted Runoff
152. Nonpoint Source: Agriculture
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-07-21
Fertilizers, manure, pesticides, soil erosion, and livestock can contaminate rivers and groundwater, while conservation practices can substantially reduce agricultural runoff.
153. Types of Nonpoint Source Pollution
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026
Agriculture, forestry, highways, construction, marinas, altered waterways, mines, and urban runoff are major diffuse sources of water pollution.
154. What Is Nutrient Pollution?
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026
Excess nitrogen and phosphorus promote algal growth, oxygen depletion, drinking-water problems, ecosystem degradation, and harmful algal blooms.
155. EPA's Efforts to Reduce Nutrient Pollution
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-11-12
EPA programs combine regulation, research, financing, agricultural partnerships, state assistance, and watershed management to reduce excess nitrogen and phosphorus.
156. Sources and Solutions: Stormwater
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-11-12
Rainwater moving across streets, roofs, lawns, and parking areas transports nutrients and other contaminants into streams unless runoff is captured or treated.
157. Data From Decadal Change in Groundwater Quality, 1988–2024
| U.S. Geological Survey | USGS | 2025-09-02
Long-term monitoring of thousands of wells tracks changes in nutrients, metals, pesticides, and organic contaminants affecting groundwater and drinking-water aquifers.
158. Use of Water Quality Index and Pesticides-Related Human Health Risk Assessment in Narok County, Kenya
| Wendyam Arsene Flavien Damiba and John Mwangi Gathenya | GeoHealth | 2025-03-27
Testing in an agricultural Kenyan watershed found microbial contamination and pesticide risks that made many sampled water sources unsuitable for untreated domestic consumption.
159. Status of Water-Quality Conditions in the United States, 2010–20
| Melinda L. Erickson et al. | U.S. Geological Survey | 2025-01-15
National assessment identifies fertilizer, manure, wastewater, urban land, atmospheric deposition, natural geology, and emerging contaminants as important influences on water quality.
160. Memorandum of Understanding Between USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service and EPA Office of Water
| USDA NRCS and U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-01-07
Federal agencies agreed to expand voluntary agricultural conservation practices designed to reduce polluted runoff and protect waterways and drinking-water sources.
161. Basic Information About Nonpoint Source Pollution
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025
Rainfall and snowmelt carry fertilizers, pesticides, sediment, petroleum products, bacteria, and other pollutants from landscapes into surface water and groundwater.
Stormwater, Green Infrastructure, and Watersheds
162. Using Green Infrastructure to Address Clean Water Act Requirements
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-08-14
Communities can use natural stormwater systems to reduce sewer overflows and satisfy water-quality requirements under the Clean Water Act.
163. Using Green Infrastructure to Support Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System Program Compliance
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-08-14
Green infrastructure can help cities prevent trash, chemicals, oil, sediment, and other pollutants from reaching waterways through storm sewer systems.
164. Water Treatment and Infrastructure Research
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-07-28
EPA research investigates drinking-water treatment, wastewater, stormwater, PFAS, infrastructure resilience, alternative water sources, and emerging contaminants.
165. Environmental Benefits of Clean Water State Revolving Fund Green Infrastructure Projects
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-07-06
Case studies examine how federally financed green infrastructure reduces urban runoff, improves water quality, and manages flooding.
166. Clean Water State Revolving Fund: Stormwater
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-01-28
Clean Water State Revolving Fund projects have financed rain gardens, bioswales, stream restoration, infiltration systems, and other stormwater improvements.
167. Land Use and Green Infrastructure Scorecard
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-01-28
Municipal land-use policies can either worsen runoff or encourage development patterns that protect streams, groundwater, and other water resources.
168. Environmental Benefits of Green Infrastructure
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026
Green infrastructure can filter pathogens, nutrients, sediment, and metals while reducing sewer overflows and helping recharge groundwater.
169. Mitigate Flooding With Green Infrastructure
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026
Rain gardens, bioswales, permeable pavement, floodplain management, and other approaches can simultaneously reduce flood risk and improve runoff quality.
170. EPA Facility Stormwater Management
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-12-16
Stormwater infiltration and capture can reduce erosion, flooding, sewer overflows, water pollution, and damage to aquatic habitats.
171. About Green Infrastructure
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025
Rain gardens, permeable surfaces, vegetation, and other green infrastructure can capture stormwater before pollutants are carried into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters.
Clean Water Infrastructure and Financing
172. WIFIA Loans to Strengthen Drinking Water and Wastewater Infrastructure in Oregon and Washington
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-12-18
Federal loans support groundwater development, drinking-water reliability, and wastewater infrastructure projects in Pacific Northwest communities.
173. EPA Announces $7 Billion in Newly Available WIFIA Funding
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-11-20
The WIFIA financing program supports large drinking-water, wastewater, and pollution-control projects through long-term federal loans.
174. Global Water Fund Annual Report FY2024
| World Vision | World Vision International | 2025-04
Large-scale WASH programs expanded clean water, sanitation, handwashing facilities, emergency water access, and community water management worldwide.
175. Kenya's Water Sector Financing Gap
| Pascaline Wanjiku Ndungu | World Bank | 2024-10-31
Kenya's experience illustrates the enormous financing required to achieve universal water, sanitation, and hygiene services while maintaining affordable access.
176. EPA Announces Over $132 Million for Water Infrastructure in Pennsylvania
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-10-24
Pennsylvania funding includes wastewater projects and programs addressing emerging contaminants in both drinking water and other water systems.
177. EPA Announces $64 Million for Water Infrastructure in Washington
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-10-24
State revolving funds support Washington projects that improve wastewater management, drinking-water systems, and freshwater protection.
178. EPA Announces Over $49 Million for Water Infrastructure in West Virginia
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-10-24
Federal allocations include clean-water infrastructure and dedicated funding for emerging contaminants in wastewater and drinking-water systems.
179. $3.6 Billion for Water Infrastructure Through Investing in America Agenda
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-10-23
State revolving funds provide long-term financing for wastewater treatment, drinking-water systems, pollution control, and other essential water infrastructure.
180. EPA Announces $276 Million for Water Infrastructure in California
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-10-23
Funding assists California communities with wastewater treatment, safe drinking water, freshwater protection, and emerging-contaminant projects.
181. EPA Announces $134 Million for Water Infrastructure in Michigan
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-10-23
Michigan received financing intended to modernize infrastructure that treats wastewater, protects freshwater resources, and provides safe drinking water.
182. $5.8 Billion for Drinking Water, Wastewater and Stormwater Infrastructure Upgrades
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-02-20
Federal funding targeted aging pipes, wastewater plants, stormwater systems, climate resilience, lead removal, and treatment for emerging contaminants.
183. More Than Half a Billion Dollars for California Drinking Water, Wastewater, and Stormwater Infrastructure
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2024-02-20
Large-scale infrastructure investment addresses aging pipes, wastewater facilities, stormwater systems, PFAS contamination, and disadvantaged-community water needs.
Clean Water Law, Governance, Equity, and Accountability
184. Summary of the Clean Water Act
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026-02-23
The Clean Water Act establishes the principal U.S. framework for controlling pollutant discharges and protecting the quality of surface waters.
185. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act
| U.S. EPA | Environmental Protection Agency | 2026
Clean Water Act Section 401 gives states and authorized Tribes authority over water-quality certification for federally permitted activities.
186. Texas Waterkeeper Issues Notice of Intent to Sue for Illegal Water Pollution at Texas Plastics Plant
| Environmental Integrity Project | Environmental Integrity Project | 2025-12-17
The proposed Clean Water Act enforcement action alleges discharges of plastic pellets and other pollutants into waterways near a Texas petrochemical complex.
187. EPA Proposal Would Reduce Federal Protections for Wetlands and Streams
| Earthjustice | Earthjustice | 2025-11-18
Earthjustice argues that narrower federal jurisdiction over wetlands and streams could increase pollution risks for downstream waterways and drinking-water sources.
188. Clean Water Act Approved Jurisdictional Determinations
| U.S. EPA and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers | Environmental Protection Agency | 2025-09-03
Jurisdictional determinations help establish which wetlands, streams, rivers, and other waters receive federal protection under the Clean Water Act.
189. EPA Halts Rulemaking to Reduce Water Pollution From Slaughterhouses
| Earthjustice | Earthjustice | 2025-09-02
Slaughterhouses and rendering facilities discharge large quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other pollutants that can degrade rivers and downstream drinking-water sources.
190. Waterkeeper Alliance Secures Legal Win Requiring EPA to Reconsider Industrial Water Pollution Standards
| Waterkeeper Alliance | Waterkeeper Alliance | 2025-06-18
A federal appeals court ruled that EPA improperly declined to reconsider decades-old pollution-control standards for several major industrial sectors.
191. Court Rules EPA Failed to Properly Consider and Update Water Pollution Standards for Oil Refineries and Plastics Plants
| Environmental Integrity Project | Environmental Integrity Project | 2025-06-18
The ruling requires renewed consideration of pollution-control technology standards governing wastewater discharged by several highly polluting industries.
192. Hawaiʻi County Agrees to Improve Wastewater Management and Protect Honokōhau Harbor
| Earthjustice | Earthjustice | 2025-04-07
A Clean Water Act settlement requires improved sewage treatment and examination of water-reuse options to reduce wastewater pollution entering a Hawaiian harbor.
193. EPA Takes Aim at Clean Water Protections
| Earthjustice | Earthjustice | 2025-03-12
Changes to federal interpretation of protected waters could determine whether many streams and wetlands remain covered by Clean Water Act safeguards.
194. Supreme Court Decision Again Undermines Clean Water Act Protections
| Waterkeeper Alliance | Waterkeeper Alliance | 2025-03-04
A Supreme Court ruling restricted certain permit conditions that regulators had used to prevent permitted discharges from causing violations of water-quality standards.
195. Follow-Up on Safe Drinking Water in First Nations Communities
| Office of the Auditor General of Canada | Government of Canada | 2025
Persistent drinking-water advisories in First Nations communities demonstrate continuing inequalities in infrastructure, governance, funding, and reliable access to safe water.
196. Water Pollution and Drinking Water
| Clean Water Action | Clean Water Action | 2024-12
Clean Water Action reviews campaigns involving lead service lines, water pollution, drinking-water protections, infrastructure investment, and environmental justice.
197. One Year After Sackett Decision, Almost Half of States Leave Many Wetlands Unprotected
| Environmental Integrity Project | Environmental Integrity Project | 2024-05-28
State laws often fail to replace federal protections lost after the Supreme Court narrowed Clean Water Act jurisdiction over wetlands.
198. Coalition Takes Action Against EPA for Failing to Implement Clean Water Act
| Environmental Integrity Project | Environmental Integrity Project | 2024-05-02
Environmental groups challenged delays in national water-quality reporting and called for stronger implementation of industrial pollution-control requirements.
199. Too Much, Too Little, Too Polluted—Transformative Partnerships on Water
| Robert Taliercio O'Brien and Saroj Kumar Jha | World Bank | 2024-02-20
Flooding, scarcity, pollution, sanitation failures, population growth, and climate change are interacting dimensions of the global water crisis.
