What Is Christian Nationalism?
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What Is Christian Nationalism?
Christian nationalism is a contested term used by scholars, journalists, religious leaders, political activists, and others to describe ideas connecting Christianity with national identity and political authority. Although definitions differ, much of the academic literature treats Christian nationalism as more than simply being Christian, believing that Christianity has influenced a nation's history, or participating in politics as a Christian.
One influential scholarly definition describes Christian nationalism as a collection of myths, traditions, symbols, narratives, and values that idealizes and advocates a fusion of Christianity with American civic life. Other researchers emphasize the desire to give Christianity a privileged position in public institutions, national identity, law, or government. Some Christian conservatives and other critics of the concept argue that the term is sometimes applied too broadly and can improperly group ordinary religious conservatism, patriotism, or Christian political participation together with demands for Christian political supremacy.
Researchers therefore increasingly treat Christian nationalism not as one perfectly uniform ideology but as a family of related beliefs whose meaning can vary considerably among individuals, organizations, religious traditions, and political movements.
Definitions and Core Concepts
One of the central problems in studying Christian nationalism is determining what the term includes and what it excludes.
Christian nationalism is generally distinguished from Christianity itself. Christians can hold almost any position concerning nationalism, democracy, church-state relations, immigration, race, economic policy, or the proper role of religion in public life. Christian religious commitment and Christian nationalism therefore cannot automatically be treated as the same phenomenon.
Christian nationalism is also distinct from patriotism. A Christian may feel strong affection for a country without believing that Christianity should determine national membership or receive special political authority. Likewise, belief that Christianity played an important historical role in a country's development does not necessarily imply support for Christian nationalism.
Researchers also distinguish Christian nationalism from American civil religion. Civil religion refers to national symbols, rituals, language, and traditions that sometimes use religious themes without necessarily giving one religious tradition formal political supremacy. The boundary between civil religion and Christian nationalism can nevertheless be difficult to define, and scholars continue to debate where one ends and the other begins.
Recent research further emphasizes that Christian nationalism is not necessarily a single ideology. Scholars have identified different theological and organizational currents, including charismatic dominionism, Calvinist or Reformed nationalism, and Catholic integralism. These traditions can disagree sharply about theology, religious authority, government, and the relationship between church and state even when they share a desire for a more explicitly Christian public order.
Measuring Christian Nationalism
Because definitions differ, estimates of the prevalence of Christian nationalism depend heavily on how researchers measure it.
Social scientists commonly use survey questions concerning whether the United States should be considered a Christian nation, whether the federal government should officially favor Christianity, whether biblical principles should influence laws, whether being Christian is important to being considered truly American, and whether government should promote Christian values.
The Public Religion Research Institute uses a multi-question index and places respondents into categories such as Adherents, Sympathizers, Skeptics, and Rejecters. Its 2025 American Values Atlas, published in 2026, classified roughly one-third of Americans as either Adherents or Sympathizers, while about two-thirds were classified as Skeptics or Rejecters.
Pew Research Center uses different questions and cautions that attitudes about a "Christian nation," Christian moral values, biblical influence, church-state separation, and the label "Christian nationalism" are not necessarily interchangeable. In its April 2026 survey, Pew found that 17 percent of U.S. adults favored officially declaring Christianity the national religion, while substantially larger numbers favored promoting Christian moral values without establishing an official religion. Most respondents did not support making Christianity the country's official religion.
These differences illustrate why apparently conflicting estimates of Christian nationalism do not necessarily contradict one another. Different studies may be measuring different combinations of religious identity, national identity, policy preferences, political theology, or attitudes toward government.
Historical Roots and the Idea of a Christian America
Debates over whether the United States is or historically was a "Christian nation" long predate the modern term Christian nationalism.
Christianity profoundly influenced colonial American society, but colonial arrangements were diverse. Some colonies supported established churches or imposed religious qualifications, while others developed stronger traditions of religious pluralism. After independence, states gradually dismantled formal religious establishments, although the process continued well into the nineteenth century.
At the federal level, the First Amendment prohibited Congress from establishing religion while protecting religious exercise. Historians and constitutional scholars continue to debate the Founders' personal religious beliefs and Christianity's broader cultural influence, but cultural influence is not the same question as whether the Constitution created an officially Christian government.
The phrase "Christian America" subsequently appeared in numerous religious and political movements. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Protestant organizations, revival movements, business leaders, politicians, anticommunist activists, and religious conservatives periodically emphasized Christianity as part of American national identity.
The addition of "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954 and the adoption of "In God We Trust" as the national motto in 1956 reflected the especially visible role of religious language during the Cold War. Scholars disagree over how directly such forms of civil religion should be connected to contemporary Christian nationalism.
Modern Christian-nationalist movements also developed partly from institutions and networks associated with the twentieth-century Christian Right, although historians differ over which movements should be placed under the Christian-nationalist label.
Religion, National Identity, and Belonging
A central theme of Christian-nationalism research concerns who is understood to belong to the nation and what characteristics define national identity.
Some survey research finds associations between stronger Christian-nationalist attitudes and the belief that Christianity is important to being truly American. Research has also investigated relationships with views about immigration, Muslims, racial identity, citizenship, demographic change, and cultural diversity.
These associations do not mean that everyone giving a particular survey response has identical motives. Studies of Black, Hispanic, and white Americans have found that similar answers to Christian-nationalism questions may arise from different religious traditions, historical experiences, political identities, or understandings of national belonging.
This has produced continuing debate about whether some commonly used survey measures capture the same concept equally well across racial and religious groups. Some scholars argue that Christian nationalism in the United States has historically been closely connected to white identity and racial hierarchy. Others emphasize the need to distinguish explicitly racial forms of nationalism from religious or cultural understandings that may appear among people from many racial backgrounds.
Political Attitudes and Public Policy
A substantial body of social-science research examines statistical relationships between Christian-nationalist beliefs and political attitudes.
Studies in the uploaded research collection address voting, immigration, policing, gun ownership, taxation, economic inequality, abortion, education, public health, gender roles, sexuality, voter access, criminal punishment, religious liberty, and attitudes toward political authority.
Researchers have also investigated whether Christian nationalism is associated with support for political violence or tolerance of leaders violating democratic norms. Several studies report relationships under particular conditions, especially when Christian nationalism interacts with perceived threat, victimhood, racial identity, conspiracy beliefs, gun-owner identity, or authoritarian attitudes.
Such findings require careful interpretation. Statistical association does not establish that Christian nationalism alone causes a particular political belief or behavior. Political partisanship, race, education, religious tradition, region, socioeconomic status, and other factors frequently overlap with Christian-nationalist attitudes. Researchers therefore use multivariate analysis, panel studies, experiments, and other methods in attempts to separate these influences.
Scholars also disagree about how broadly the Christian-nationalism framework should be applied. Some argue that it provides an important explanation for contemporary political behavior that cannot be reduced to conventional conservatism or religiosity. Critics argue that researchers sometimes risk labeling attitudes as Christian nationalism when alternative explanations such as conservative identity politics, traditional religious beliefs, or partisan polarization may better explain them.
Race, Immigration, and Social Boundaries
Race and immigration are prominent subjects in the academic literature.
Researchers have reported associations between some measures of Christian nationalism and attitudes concerning interracial relationships, racial discrimination, policing, immigration, Muslims, refugees, and national belonging. Some scholarship interprets white Christian nationalism as a historical intersection of religious identity, racial boundaries, and national mythology.
Other research complicates this picture. Christian-nationalist survey responses are found among Black and Hispanic Americans as well as whites, and researchers have examined whether the same questions carry different meanings across groups. Black Christian traditions, for example, contain their own histories of biblical language, national belonging, civil rights activism, and interpretations of America's religious identity.
Consequently, race and Christian nationalism are related research subjects but should not automatically be treated as identical concepts. The nature of their relationship remains an active area of social-science investigation.
Democracy, Authority, and Political Violence
The relationship between Christian nationalism and democracy is another major area of research.
Some studies find that stronger Christian-nationalist attitudes correlate with greater acceptance of authoritarian political alternatives or with willingness to tolerate violations of democratic norms under certain circumstances. Researchers have examined these patterns in connection with perceived cultural threat, political identity, religious beliefs, and racial attitudes.
The January 6, 2021 attack on the U.S. Capitol intensified scholarly and journalistic attention because Christian prayers, crosses, banners, and other religious symbols were visible among some participants. Researchers disagree about how much explanatory weight Christian nationalism should receive relative to partisan politics, election misinformation, conspiracy theories, antigovernment extremism, and other factors.
Studies of January 6 therefore generally treat Christian nationalism as one possible component within a broader mixture of political, religious, and social influences rather than as a complete explanation for the event.
Education and Public Institutions
Christian nationalism also appears in debates concerning public schools and other government institutions.
Research has examined support for Bible instruction, school prayer, patriotic history curricula, religious displays, parental authority, and legislation concerning religious expression. Project Blitz, a network associated with model state legislation on religious issues, became a prominent subject of scholarship and advocacy concerning Christian-nationalist policymaking.
Supporters of stronger religious expression in public life often describe such policies in terms of religious liberty, historical recognition, parental rights, or restoration of traditional values. Opponents may describe the same measures as attempts to privilege Christianity or weaken church-state separation.
These conflicting interpretations demonstrate why individual policies should be analyzed on their specific legal provisions and effects rather than classified solely according to the labels used by either supporters or critics.
Christian Responses and Theological Debate
Christian communities themselves are deeply divided over Christian nationalism.
Some Christian writers defend versions of Christian nationalism, arguing that every nation inevitably reflects moral and religious commitments and that Christianity can provide a beneficial foundation for public life. Some distinguish a Christian cultural nation from a coercive religious state and argue that Christianity can restrain rather than intensify nationalism.
Other Christians reject Christian nationalism on theological grounds. Evangelical, Baptist, Catholic, Presbyterian, Orthodox, and other writers have argued that fusing Christianity with national political power can distort Christian teaching, compromise religious liberty, or place national identity above religious commitments.
Still others object primarily to the terminology. They argue that "Christian nationalism" is sometimes used imprecisely to describe conventional Christian positions on social issues or ordinary participation by religious citizens in democratic politics.
These disagreements demonstrate that there is no unified Christian position on Christian nationalism.
Constitutional and Religious-Liberty Questions
The American debate is also shaped by constitutional questions concerning establishment and free exercise of religion.
The First Amendment states that Congress may make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting its free exercise. The meaning and application of those clauses have generated extensive legal disputes from the founding era through the present.
Historical evidence shows that early America contained both substantial Christian cultural influence and significant disagreement concerning government support of religion. Some states maintained religious establishments after independence, while a gradual movement toward disestablishment developed alongside expanding ideas of liberty of conscience.
Modern disputes therefore involve competing questions: how government can protect free religious exercise, when government acknowledgment of religion becomes unconstitutional preference, and whether particular policies treat Christianity neutrally or grant it special political status.
Christian nationalism is not itself a legal category. Constitutional analysis ultimately turns on specific governmental actions, laws, and judicial doctrines rather than on whether observers apply the Christian-nationalist label.
International and Comparative Perspectives
Religious nationalism is not exclusively American or exclusively Christian.
Comparative research examines relationships between national identity and Christianity in parts of Europe, Africa, Latin America, and Canada, as well as Hindu, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, and other forms of religious nationalism around the world.
Pew Research Center's international research defines religious nationalism using a combination of national belonging, the religion of political leaders, religious influence over law, and preference for religious teachings when they conflict with popular will. Using this standardized measure, religious nationalism varies considerably among countries.
Comparative studies are useful because they show that relationships among religion, nation, ethnicity, state authority, and law develop differently according to each society's history and institutions. American Christian nationalism is therefore one example within a much broader global phenomenon.
Public Opinion and Continuing Debate
Public opinion concerning Christianity and government is more complicated than a simple division between supporters and opponents of Christian nationalism.
Americans distinguish among declaring Christianity an official religion, promoting Christian moral values, allowing the Bible to influence laws, protecting religious expression, enforcing church-state separation, and describing the United States culturally as a Christian nation.
Familiarity with the phrase "Christian nationalism" has increased, but many Americans remain unfamiliar with it or do not have a clear favorable or unfavorable opinion. Polling also shows substantial partisan and religious differences.
The terminology itself remains contested. Some people use Christian nationalism narrowly for movements seeking formal Christian political privilege. Others use it more broadly for cultural narratives connecting Christianity and American identity. Still others reject the label or argue that its expanding use reduces its analytical usefulness.
For this reason, careful discussion benefits from identifying the specific belief, organization, policy, or political claim being examined rather than assuming that everyone uses "Christian nationalism" to mean the same thing.
Conclusion
Christian nationalism is best understood as a contested collection of ideas concerning the relationship between Christianity, national identity, political authority, and public life rather than as a synonym for Christianity, patriotism, conservatism, or religious political participation.
The scholarly literature has expanded rapidly and now includes historical studies, survey research, political science, sociology, religious studies, constitutional analysis, journalism, and theological argument. Researchers have examined its relationships with national identity, race, immigration, education, gender, religious liberty, political authority, voting, public policy, and attitudes toward democracy.
At the same time, substantial disagreements remain. Scholars debate how Christian nationalism should be defined and measured, whether different racial and religious groups interpret survey questions in the same way, how distinct forms of Christian nationalism relate to one another, and how much explanatory power the concept has compared with partisanship, religious traditionalism, racial identity, or other political ideologies.
Christian communities are similarly divided, ranging from explicit defenses of Christian nationalism to theological opposition and criticism of the term itself.
Understanding Christian nationalism therefore requires distinguishing among personal faith, religious conservatism, civil religion, patriotism, nationalism, and demands for governmental preference toward Christianity. Keeping these categories separate makes it possible to examine the evidence and competing arguments without assuming that every form of Christian political involvement represents the same phenomenon.
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What Is Christian Nationalism? — Categorized, Deduplicated, Reverse-Chronological Sources
Definitions and Core Concepts
On Christian Nationalism
| Jesse Smith and Jonathan Tran | Religious Studies Review | September 5, 2026
Reviews the rapid expansion of scholarship about Christian nationalism and examines continuing disputes about how the phenomenon should be conceptualized.
We Still Don’t Know What It Is
| Andrew R. Polk | Journal of the Council for Research on Religion | August 2026
Examines the historical ambiguity surrounding Christian nationalism and argues that imprecision has been a recurring feature of American religious-national rhetoric.
What Is Christian Nationalism?
| Got Questions Ministries | GotQuestions.org | May 18, 2026
Presents a conservative evangelical perspective arguing that the term is often applied inconsistently while rejecting political domination or oppression in Christianity's name.
Not Everything Is Christian Nationalism
| Chris Butler | Christianity Today | May 5, 2026
Warns against applying the Christian-nationalist label so broadly that ordinary Christian conservative positions become indistinguishable from demands for Christian political supremacy.
The Case for Christian Nationalism
| R. R. Reno | First Things | March 5, 2026
Provides an explicitly favorable argument for Christian nationalism, portraying Christianity as a potential restraint on excesses of nationalism and liberal individualism.
What Is the Meaning of Christian Nationalism?
| Lisa Loraine Baker | Christianity.com | March 5, 2026
Provides a contemporary Christian-oriented overview of the term and discusses theological objections and historical examples.
It’s Not ‘Christian Nationalism.’ It’s Conservative Identity Politics
| George Yancey | Christianity Today | January 2026
Questions whether Christian nationalism is always the most useful explanation for white conservative Christian political behavior and proposes an identity-politics framework.
The Varieties of American Christian Nationalism
| Nilay Saiya | Politics and Religion | May 13, 2025
Argues that American Christian nationalism is not monolithic and identifies charismatic dominionism, Calvinist nationalism, and Catholic integralism as distinct currents.
What Is Christian Nationalism — and Is It a Real Threat?
| Christian Post Staff | The Christian Post | September 13, 2024
Discusses disputes about what Christian nationalism includes, what it excludes, and whether the term is sometimes applied too broadly.
On the “Nation” of Christian Nationalism
| Peter J. Leithart | First Things | April 12, 2024
Offers a Christian intellectual defense of the possibility that nations may have recognizably Christian cultures while examining what the word "nation" means in the debate.
Old Wine in New Wineskins
| Jesse Smith | Sociological Forum | 2024
Critiques parts of the Christian-nationalism literature for potentially assuming authoritarian motivations rather than testing alternative explanations.
What Is Christian Nationalism Anyway?
| Bob Smietana | The Washington Post | May 19, 2023
Reviews disagreements over the term and contrasts Christian nationalism with civil religion, personal faith, and conventional religious conservatism.
What Is Christian Nationalism, Anyway?
| Bob Smietana | Religion News Service | May 17, 2023
Examines competing definitions of Christian nationalism and emphasizes that scholars do not generally use the term as a synonym for evangelical Christianity or ordinary religious participation in politics.
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Christian Nationalism
| Patrick Schreiner | The Gospel Coalition | April 27, 2023
Presents a conservative Baptist discussion distinguishing several meanings attached to Christian nationalism rather than treating the term as one unified ideology.
The Duality of American Christian Nationalism
| Ruiqian Li and Paul Froese | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | 2023
Distinguishes between religious traditionalism centered mainly on Christian civil society and Christian statism favoring stronger governmental privileging of Christianity.
People Are Still Confused About Christian Nationalism
| Paul D. Miller | Christianity Today | 2023
Addresses definitional confusion and argues for differentiating political nationalism from ordinary Christian political engagement.
A Tale of Two Books, One Podcast, and the Contest over Christian Nationalism
| Paul D. Miller | Christianity Today | December 20, 2022
Compares opposing intellectual cases concerning Christian nationalism and illustrates substantial disagreement among Christians over nationalism, political authority, and national culture.
What Is Christian Nationalism?
| Paul D. Miller | Christianity Today | February 3, 2021
Defines Christian nationalism as a political ideology linking American national identity with Christianity and distinguishes it from Christianity itself, patriotism, and ordinary Christian political participation.
Introduction: A House Dividing
| Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | March 19, 2020
Defines Christian nationalism as a framework of myths, traditions, symbols, narratives, and values advocating a fusion of Christianity with American civic life.
Taking America Back for God: Christian Nationalism in the United States
| Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | March 19, 2020
Presents a major empirical treatment of Christian nationalism and argues that it should be distinguished analytically from personal religiosity and conventional political conservatism.
Public Opinion and Measurement
How Americans’ Views of the Term Christian Nationalism Are Shaped
| Charles McCrary | Public Religion Research Institute | May 15, 2026
Studies familiarity with the term itself and how media use and political orientation relate to whether Americans view the label favorably or unfavorably.
How Americans Feel About Religion’s Influence in Government and Public Life
| Chip Rotolo and Gregory A. Smith | Pew Research Center | May 14, 2026
Reports 2026 national survey findings concerning church-state relations, Christian nationalism, Christian moral values, and Americans' attitudes toward religion in government.
Mapping Christian Nationalism Across the 50 States
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 17, 2026
Uses more than 22,000 interviews to classify respondents as Christian-nationalism Adherents, Sympathizers, Skeptics, or Rejecters and examines geographic and demographic differences.
Fact Sheet: A Closer Look at Christian Nationalism in Nine States
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 17, 2026
Provides detailed profiles for Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Michigan, Minnesota, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Wisconsin.
Christian Nationalism — PRRI Research Collection
| Public Religion Research Institute | PRRI | 2026
Collects PRRI polling, state-level reports, demographic analyses, immigration research, authoritarianism studies, and other material on Christian nationalism.
Christian Nationalism Across All 50 States
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 4, 2025
Provides state-level estimates and examines relationships among religion, party identification, education, race, and Christian-nationalist attitudes.
Religious Nationalism Around the World
| Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | January 28, 2025
Develops a consistent cross-national measure of religious nationalism and compares attitudes in 35 countries, including Christian nationalism in the United States.
Resistance to Christian Nationalism in All 50 States
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | October 30, 2024
Examines Americans classified as Skeptics and Rejecters and demonstrates that opposition to Christian-nationalist ideas crosses religious and demographic boundaries.
Christianity’s Place in Politics and ‘Christian Nationalism’
| Chip Rotolo, Gregory A. Smith and Jonathan Evans | Pew Research Center | March 15, 2024
Measures public attitudes toward declaring the United States Christian, promoting Christian moral values, biblical influence on laws, and the Christian-nationalist label.
Support for Christian Nationalism in All 50 States
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 28, 2024
Presents PRRI's first detailed state-by-state analysis based on more than 22,000 interviews conducted during 2023.
The Hot Topic That I Hate Writing About
| Kelsey Dallas | Deseret News | February 14, 2023
Explains why the academic origins and multiple meanings of the term make Christian nationalism difficult to describe consistently in popular journalism.
A Christian Nation? Understanding the Threat of Christian Nationalism to American Democracy and Culture
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | February 8, 2023
Introduces PRRI's five-question Christian-nationalism measurement and examines correlations with political, racial, religious, and social attitudes.
Views of the U.S. as a Christian Nation and Opinions About Christian Nationalism
| Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
Shows that Americans attach widely differing meanings to "Christian nation," ranging from Christian cultural influence to formal religious governance.
45% of Americans Say U.S. Should Be a ‘Christian Nation’
| Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
Reports a large national survey examining Christian-national identity, religion in politics, church-state separation, and how respondents define a Christian nation.
In Their Own Words: How Americans Describe ‘Christian Nationalism’
| Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | October 27, 2022
Analyzes open-ended responses showing that Americans use the phrase to mean substantially different things.
Social Science Research
Backlash to Christian Nationalism
| David E. Campbell and Geoffrey C. Layman | Politics and Religion | July 13, 2026
Investigates whether exposure to religious symbolism associated with January 6 produced religious or partisan backlash among Americans.
The Full Armor of God
Focuses on measurement, mechanisms, and political mobilization to explain how Christian nationalism became incorporated into contemporary partisan politics.
In God We Trust: Christian Nationalism and Distrust of Immigrants
| Christopher H. Seto | Sociology of Religion | May 24, 2026
Examines associations between Christian nationalism and distrust of immigrants and considers differences by political and racial identity.
The Weakness of Anti-Christian Nationalism
| Paul A. Djupe and Brooklyn Walker | Politics and Religion | March 26, 2026
Tests whether explicitly inclusive religious orientations reliably counter attitudes associated with Christian nationalism.
Tilled Fields for Christian Nationalism
| Kimberly H. Conger | Politics and Religion | January 14, 2026
Studies Project Blitz and argues that contemporary Christian-nationalist policy activism builds on organizational networks developed by the older Christian Right.
Religion Is Sometimes Raced
Examines whether Christian nationalism functions differently across racial groups and whether it can operate as a mechanism of religious in-group protection.
Christian Nationalism and Attitudes About Democracy in Africa
| John Ishiyama | Politics and Religion | September 15, 2025
Uses Afrobarometer data to study Christian nationalism, democratic attitudes, authoritarian alternatives, and tolerance across African societies.
How Christian Nationalism Promotes White Supremacy
| Samuel L. Perry | Sociology of Race and Ethnicity | July 14, 2025
Uses General Social Survey data to examine how Christian nationalism relates to racial stereotypes and perceptions of white Americans.
Jesus and John Wayne Wannabes
| Paul A. Djupe | Sociology of Religion | March 8, 2025
Examines Christian nationalism, masculinity, gender attitudes, and extreme political attitudes among American men.
The Religion of White Identity Politics
| Samuel L. Perry and Joshua B. Grubbs | Social Forces | February 23, 2025
Investigates connections between Christian nationalism and measures of white racial identity and solidarity.
Character Matters? Christian Nationalism and Insistence on Ethical Political Leaders
| Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | Review of Religious Research | January 9, 2025
Investigates how strong religio-political group identification may affect judgments about the moral character of political leaders.
White or Woke Christian Nationalists?
| Samuel L. Perry and colleagues | Public Opinion Quarterly | 2025
Explores how race conditions relationships between Christian-nationalist survey responses and progressive or conservative political identities.
Christian Nationalism and Organized White Supremacy
| Researchers in Politics, Religion & Ideology | Politics, Religion & Ideology | 2025
Examines historical connections among British-Israelism, Christian Identity, explicitly white-supremacist organizations, and Christian-nationalist rhetoric.
Faith over Fear? Christian Nationalism and Cultural Fears in the United States
| Joseph O. Baker and Andrew L. Whitehead | Nations and Nationalism | November 17, 2024
Tests whether cultural and social fears help explain Americans' embrace of Christian-nationalist attitudes.
Which Political Entities Are “Friendly” to Religion?
| Samuel L. Perry | Politics and Religion | October 2, 2024
Studies how Christian nationalism and partisan identity affect perceptions of whether political institutions and parties are friendly or hostile toward religion.
Christian Nationalism and Violence Against Religious Minorities
| Nilay Saiya | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | September 2, 2024
Uses state-level longitudinal data to test the association between politicians' Christian-nationalist rhetoric and attacks against religious minorities.
Division on the Christian Right
| Political Science Researchers | Politics and Religion | 2024
Studies divisions among Republican pastors and the circumstances under which Christian-nationalist commitments may be associated with accepting political force.
American Evangelical Nationalism: History, Status Quo, and Outlook
| Shaoqing Zhou | International Journal of Anthropology and Ethnology | December 6, 2023
Surveys the historical development of evangelical nationalism from earlier revival movements through the Moral Majority and contemporary American politics.
Race over Religion
Examines whether racial or religious diversity is more strongly perceived as threatening national unity among people scoring highly on Christian-nationalism measures.
Christian Nationalism and Political Violence
| Miles T. Armaly, David T. Buckley and Adam M. Enders | Political Behavior | January 4, 2022
Examines relationships among Christian nationalism, perceived victimhood, racial identity, conspiracy beliefs, and support for the January 6 Capitol attack.
Christian Nationalism and Political Violence — Full Text
| Miles T. Armaly, David T. Buckley and Adam M. Enders | Political Behavior / PMC | 2022
Provides the complete open-access study and methodological discussion concerning Christian nationalism and support for political violence.
Divided by Faith (in Christian America)
| Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead and Joshua B. Grubbs | Social Forces | November 11, 2021
Investigates how Christian-nationalist attitudes are associated with differing white and Black perceptions of racial discrimination and racial injustice.
Crusading for Moral Authority
| Joseph O. Baker, Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | Sociological Forum | August 6, 2020
Studies relationships between Christian nationalism and attitudes toward contested scientific issues while controlling for religiosity and political identity.
Make America Christian Again
Uses national survey data to examine the relationship between Christian-nationalist attitudes and voting behavior in the 2016 presidential election.
Christian Nationalism and White Racial Boundaries
| Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | Ethnic and Racial Studies | March 6, 2015
An early empirical study examining Christian nationalism in relation to white attitudes toward interracial marriage.
Race, Immigration, Authoritarianism and Political Attitudes
Progressive Christian Mobilization and the Discourse of White Christian Nationalism
Studies how progressive Christian organizations use the concept of white Christian nationalism in political and religious mobilization.
What Is America? Immigration, National Identity, and Belonging
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | July 2026
Examines competing civic, religious, and ethnocultural definitions of American national identity and their relationship to immigration attitudes.
How Christian Nationalism Affects Views on Immigration
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | March 30, 2026
Compares immigration attitudes among white, Black, and Hispanic respondents classified at different levels of Christian-nationalist support.
Inside the Authoritarian-Christian Nationalism Link
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | November 7, 2025
Uses survey models to examine relationships among Christian nationalism, authoritarianism, cultural anxiety, political violence, religion, and partisanship.
How Christian Nationalist Rhetoric Can Influence Elections Across Race
| Allyson Shortle and Michael R. Fisher Jr. | Public Religion Research Institute | August 12, 2025
Examines whether responses to Christian-nationalist political rhetoric differ across racial groups.
Understanding Authoritarianism and Christian Nationalism by Race
| Michael R. Fisher Jr. | Public Religion Research Institute | June 18, 2025
Investigates differences in Christian-nationalist and authoritarian attitudes across racial groups.
Prophecy, Trump, and the Justification of Political Violence
| PRRI Staff | Public Religion Research Institute | June 18, 2025
Examines connections among charismatic religious beliefs, Christian nationalism, prophecy, and attitudes toward political violence.
Why Black Americans Identify as Christian Nationalists
| Ansley Quiros | Public Religion Research Institute | May 14, 2025
Argues that identical Christian-nationalism survey responses can carry different historical and theological meanings among Black and white Americans.
Christian Nationalism and Hispanic Americans: Unpacking the Data
| Anita Huízar-Hernández | Public Religion Research Institute | March 17, 2025
Examines religious, political, demographic, and historical factors behind Christian-nationalist attitudes among Hispanic Americans.
Christian Nationalism: A ‘Stained-Glass Ceiling’ for LGBT Candidates?
| Public Religion Research Institute | PRRI | 2022
Discusses research finding an association between Christian-nationalist attitudes and lower support for LGBT political candidates.
History and American Religious Identity
Early Interpretations of the Religion Clauses
| Congressional Research Service | Constitution Annotated / Congress.gov | Current
Reviews early federal church-state disputes, James Madison's actions, the Treaty of Tripoli, and failed proposals to identify the federal government explicitly as Christian.
Early Interpretations of the Religion Clauses — Cornell
| Congressional Research Service | Cornell Legal Information Institute | Current
Provides constitutional history of establishment and free-exercise debates and early controversies about whether the United States could be characterized as Christian.
Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States
| Jane G. Rainey | First Amendment Encyclopedia | Updated
Explains the often-cited 1892 Supreme Court statement describing America as a "Christian nation" and places the phrase in its legal context.
Did the Founders Create a Christian Nation?
| Peter Smith | Associated Press | May 3, 2026
Surveys historians' disagreements over Christianity's influence at the founding while distinguishing cultural influence from an official Christian constitutional order.
Christian America and the Kingdom of God
| Richard T. Hughes | University of Illinois Press / Oxford Academic | 2025
Traces ideas of Christian America from Puritanism through modern politics and January 6 while examining biblical concepts of chosen nations and God's kingdom.
The Roots of Christian Nationalism Go Back Further Than You Think
| Robert P. Jones | CrossCurrents | December 2024
Places contemporary white Christian nationalism within a longer history of American racial, religious, and national identity.
What Christian Nationalism Looked Like in Practice
| William Horne | TIME / Made by History | October 17, 2024
Uses Jim Crow-era history to examine earlier combinations of Christian rhetoric, racial hierarchy, and national political identity.
Inventing a Christian America
| Steven K. Green | Smithsonian Libraries / Oxford University Press | 2015
Examines claims that the United States was founded as an explicitly Christian nation and traces how that historical narrative developed.
One Nation Under God
| Kevin M. Kruse | Smithsonian Libraries / Basic Books | 2015
Traces the twentieth-century development of public "Christian America" rhetoric and the political campaigns surrounding "under God" and "In God We Trust."
Religion and the Courts, 1790–1947
| Leslie Griffin | Cambridge History of Religions in America | 2012
Surveys American constitutional and judicial developments concerning religious establishment and free exercise from the founding through the mid-twentieth century.
America’s True History of Religious Tolerance
| Kenneth C. Davis | Smithsonian Magazine | October 2010
Reviews the uneven history of religious liberty and religious discrimination in colonial and early American society.
Van Orden v. Perry
| U.S. Supreme Court | Cornell Legal Information Institute | 2005
Contains competing judicial discussions of American religious history in a case concerning a Ten Commandments monument on government property.
Policy, Schools and Organized Movements
BlitzWatch: Monitoring Project Blitz and Christian Nationalists
| BlitzWatch Coalition | BlitzWatch | Current
Tracks model legislation promoted by Project Blitz involving religious heritage, public schools, religious exemptions, and other state-level policies; the site represents an advocacy coalition opposed to the project.
Christian Nationalism and Educational Policy in the United States
| Kevin J. Burke and Heidi Hadley | National Education Policy Center | November 4, 2025
Examines Christian-nationalist ideas in contemporary debates over public education, curriculum, school governance, religious expression, and parental rights.
How Christian Nationalism Seeped Into Home Schooling
| Bob Smietana and Emily McFarlan Miller | The Washington Post | December 23, 2022
Examines the relationship between conservative Christian home-school curricula, American history narratives, and ideas about Christian national identity.
Power
| Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | March 19, 2020
Examines relationships between Christian nationalism and political attitudes concerning immigration, refugees, guns, patriotism, and electoral politics.
Boundaries
| Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | March 19, 2020
Examines race, ethnicity, immigration, citizenship, and religious diversity through the authors' Christian-nationalism framework.
Order
| Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | March 19, 2020
Studies connections between Christian nationalism and views concerning family structure, gender roles, sexuality, and social order.
‘In God We Trust’ — The Bills Christian Nationalists Hope Will ‘Protect Religious Freedom’
| David Taylor | The Guardian | January 14, 2019
Reports on Project Blitz's effort to supply state legislators with model bills concerning religious heritage and religious-liberty issues.
Why Some Christians Don’t Believe in Gun Control
| Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | The Washington Post | July 25, 2018
Discusses research connecting Christian-nationalist attitudes with views of the Second Amendment and gun regulation.
January 6, Political Movements and Journalism
What Is Christian Nationalism and Why It Raises Concerns About Threats to Democracy
| Laura Barrón-López and Sam Lane | PBS NewsHour | February 1, 2024
Interviews scholar Brad Onishi about Christian nationalism, his former involvement in conservative evangelicalism, and contemporary political manifestations.
Who Are the Christian Nationalists? A Taxonomy for the Post-Jan. 6 World
| Bob Smietana | Religion News Service | January 6, 2023
Identifies several loose networks associated with different forms of contemporary Christian-nationalist political and religious activism.
Who Are the Christian Nationalists? A Taxonomy for the Post-Jan. 6 World
| Bob Smietana | The Washington Post | January 6, 2023
Surveys multiple networks and constituencies that have been described as Christian nationalist while emphasizing significant differences among them.
Faith Leaders Ask Why Jan. 6 Report Left Out Christian Nationalism
| Jack Jenkins | The Washington Post | December 29, 2022
Reports debate among religious leaders and scholars over the extent to which Christian-nationalist beliefs and imagery should figure in interpretations of January 6.
Is Christian Nationalism Growing or Declining? Both.
| Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | The Washington Post | October 25, 2022
Discusses evidence that aggregate Christian-nationalist survey attitudes and the ideology's prominence within partisan politics can move in different directions.
How the Capitol Attacks Helped Spread Christian Nationalism in the Extreme Right
| Michelle Boorstein and Hannah Allam | The Washington Post | January 26, 2022
Reports on the use of Christian imagery and nationalist rhetoric within parts of the post-January 6 extreme right.
Christian and Theological Responses
The Summer of Taking Christian Nationalism Seriously
| Megan Fowler | Christianity Today | July 30, 2026
Reports how several Christian denominations are formally studying and debating Christian nationalism and its implications for church life and political engagement.
The Antidote to Christian Nationalism
| America Magazine | America: The Jesuit Review | April 17, 2025
Discusses Christian nationalism from a Catholic perspective, reviews competing definitions, and considers alternative models for Christian participation in pluralistic public life.
Christian Nationalism Cannot Save the World
| Russell Moore | Christianity Today | September 29, 2022
Offers an evangelical theological critique of using Christian identity, language, and ritual to sacralize national or ethnic political identity.
White Evangelicals Have a Complicated Relationship with Christian Nationalism
| Matthew Lee Anderson | Christianity Today | 2020
Reviews scholarship on Christian nationalism while cautioning against treating all white evangelical political activity as equivalent to nationalism.
Political Attitudes, Public Policy, and Social Science
Christian Nationalism, Race, and Contingent Support for Law Enforcement
[doi:10.1111/1745-9125.70066 | Christopher H. Seto et al. | Criminology | August 6, 2026]
Uses two survey experiments to investigate whether Christian-nationalist support for policing changes according to the race and circumstances of people encountering law enforcement.
Americans’ Views of Religion in Public Life
[doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2026.103393 | David Sikkink and Greg Wurm | Social Science Research | August 2026]
Compares Christian nationalism, civil religion, and liberal secularism as cultural models shaping attitudes toward religious and nonreligious groups.
Culture Wars and Classism: Christian Nationalism, Economic Position, and Americans’ Approval of Inequality
[doi:10.1093/sf/soag034 | Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | Social Forces | April 24, 2026]
Examines the relationship between Christian-nationalist attitudes, socioeconomic position, and Americans’ acceptance of economic inequality.
Americanizing the Reformation
[Micah Oosterhoff | Journal of the American Academy of Religion | April 20, 2026]
Examines how selective historical memory about the Protestant Reformation is used in narratives connecting Protestant Christianity with American national identity.
An Eye for an Eye? The Conditional Punitiveness of Christian Nationalists
[doi:10.1093/psquar/qqag007 | Brooklyn Walker and Kevin J. Mullinix | Political Science Quarterly | April 9, 2026]
Uses survey research to investigate when Christian-nationalist attitudes are associated with punitive approaches to crime and punishment.
An Army for God: Gun Ownership, Christian Nationalism, and Support for Political Violence
[doi:10.1111/ssqu.70150 | Donald Haider-Markel, Brooklyn Walker and Abigail Vegter | Social Science Quarterly | April 2, 2026]
Examines interactions among Christian nationalism, gun ownership, gun-owner identity, and expressed support for political violence.
Partisan and Racial Sorting of Christian Nationalism, 1996–2022
[doi:10.1111/jssr.70015 | Jesse Smith | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | December 26, 2025]
Tracks changes over more than two decades in the partisan and racial distribution of Christian-nationalist attitudes.
“We Should All Be Christian Nationalists”: Elite Influence on Identification With Christian Nationalism
[doi:10.1007/s11109-025-10074-y | Amy Brooke Grauley | Political Behavior | September 29, 2025]
Uses preregistered experiments to examine whether positive or negative messages from political elites influence willingness to identify with the Christian-nationalist label.
Patterns of Christian Nationalist Engagement and Connections to Spirituality
[doi:10.1007/s11089-025-01241-3 | Seungju Kim, Peter J. Jankowski, David C. Wang and Hannah Hawkins | Pastoral Psychology | July 28, 2025]
Studies different patterns of Christian-nationalist belief among emerging religious leaders and compares them with measures of spirituality, authoritarianism, and social engagement.
Religious Nationalism in the 21st Century
[Geneviève Zubrzycki | Sociology of Religion | July 8, 2025]
Provides a sociological overview of contemporary religious nationalism and places the American Christian-nationalism debate within a broader comparative framework.
Approaching National Christianities in the Nordic Region
[Ida Olenius | Journal of Church and State | July 1, 2025]
Examines relationships among national identity, Christianity, churches, and secularization in Nordic countries.
Anti-Abortion and Pro-Coercion
[doi:10.1093/socpro/spaf034 | Darci K. Schmidgall, Samuel L. Perry and Joshua B. Grubbs | Social Problems | June 28, 2025]
Investigates the relationship between white Christian-nationalist attitudes and support for criminal penalties against women who obtain abortions.
Order Begins at Home: Christian Nationalism and Control Over Children
[doi:10.1093/sf/soaf058 | Samuel L. Perry | Social Forces | April 27, 2025]
Examines Christian nationalism as a possible influence on attitudes toward parental authority, child discipline, obedience, and punishment.
Not Paying Unto Caesar: Christian Nationalism, Politics, Race, and Opposition to Taxation
[doi:10.1093/sf/soaf041 | Samuel L. Perry and Ruth Braunstein | Social Forces | 2025]
Studies how Christian nationalism, political identity, and race relate to Americans’ attitudes toward taxation and government revenue.
Christian Nationalism and Support for Leaders Violating Democratic Norms During National Emergencies
[Samuel L. Perry and Joshua B. Grubbs | Politics and Religion | September 19, 2024]
Studies whether Christian-nationalist attitudes predict greater tolerance of political leaders violating democratic norms during perceived crises.
Intersecting Identities, Diverging Visions
[doi:10.1080/01419870.2024.2382331 | Samuel L. Perry, Jessica R. Veal, Landon Schnabel and Joshua B. Grubbs | Ethnic and Racial Studies | August 2, 2024]
Examines how race, gender, and Christian nationalism interact with Americans’ preferences for liberty and equality.
The Appeal and Perils of Religious Nationalism: A Comparative Analysis
[Joseph Harder | Theological Reflections | 2024]
Discusses religious nationalism comparatively and considers why religious-national identity can appeal to communities while also generating political and theological tensions.
Mooring Christian Nationalism
[doi:10.1080/00380253.2023.2263495 | Darren E. Sherkat, Derek Lehman and Nabil Bill Julkif | The Sociological Quarterly | October 20, 2023]
Examines how religious affiliation, participation, beliefs, and institutional involvement relate to Christian-nationalist attitudes.
“I Don’t Want Everybody to Vote”: Christian Nationalism and Restricting Voter Access
[doi:10.1111/socf.12776 | Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead and Joshua B. Grubbs | Sociological Forum | 2022]
Examines associations between Christian-nationalist attitudes and support for policies that make voting more restrictive.
Christian No More: Christian Americans Are Threatened by Their Impending Minority Status
[doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104223 | Rosemary L. Al-Kire, Michael H. Pasek, Jo-Ann Tsang and Wade C. Rowatt | Journal of Experimental Social Psychology | November 2021]
Uses experiments to study how information about changing religious demographics affects perceived threat, Christian-nationalist attitudes, ideology, and political preferences.
Christian Nationalism and Views of Immigrants in the United States
[doi:10.1177/2378023120985116 | Samuel Stroope, Heather M. Rackin and Paul Froese | Socius | February 16, 2021]
Tests whether the relationship between Christian nationalism and attitudes toward immigrants differs according to religious participation.
Protecting America’s Borders: Christian Nationalism, Threat, and Attitudes Toward Immigrants
[doi:10.1177/1368430220978291 | Rosemary Al-Kire et al. | Group Processes & Intergroup Relations | January 18, 2021]
Investigates how national and religious identity, perceived threat, and Christian nationalism relate to attitudes toward immigrants and immigration policy.
Save the Economy, Liberty, and Yourself
[doi:10.1093/socrel/sraa047 | Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead and Joshua B. Grubbs | Sociology of Religion | December 29, 2020]
Examines relationships between Christian nationalism and attitudes toward government COVID-19 restrictions, economic priorities, personal liberty, and protection of vulnerable populations.
Culture Wars and COVID-19 Conduct
[doi:10.1111/jssr.12677 | Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead and Joshua B. Grubbs | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | July 26, 2020]
Uses pandemic-era panel data to study Christian nationalism, religiosity, precautionary behavior, and responses to public-health recommendations; the journal notes that this rapidly published article received editor rather than conventional peer review.
Gun Control in the Crosshairs
[doi:10.1177/2378023118790189 | Andrew L. Whitehead, Landon Schnabel and Samuel L. Perry | Socius | July 23, 2018]
Uses Baylor Religion Survey data to examine the relationship between Christian nationalism and opposition to stricter federal gun laws.
International and Comparative Perspectives
Parental Rights in “God’s Dominion”: Canadian Christian Nationalism in Alberta
[Lisa Gasson-Gardner and Corinne L. Mason | Canadian Review of Sociology | August 18, 2026]
Uses Alberta as a case study for examining intersections among Christian nationalism, parental-rights activism, education, gender, and sexuality.
Christian Nationalism and Synod
[John Valk | Christian Courier | June 30, 2026]
Discusses debate within Canadian Reformed communities about nationalism, Christianity, church identity, and the use of the Christian-nationalist label.
What Is Christian Nationalism? The Complete Guide
[Scott A. Leadingham | Freedom Forum | May 21, 2026]
Provides a First Amendment-focused overview distinguishing Christian nationalism from ordinary religious participation while reviewing church-state constitutional questions.
Christian Nationalism — Presbyterian Church in Canada
[The Presbyterian Church in Canada | Presbyterian Church in Canada | 2026]
Presents denominational study materials following the 2026 General Assembly’s decision to circulate a proposed statement rejecting Christian nationalism.
Christian Nationalism in Post-Apartheid South Africa
[Siphiwe Dube | International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church | November 24, 2023]
Traces forms of Christian nationalism in South Africa from Afrikaner nationalist organizations to newer transracial Pentecostal and charismatic movements.
The Importance of Christianity, Customs, and Traditions in the National Identities of European Countries
[Klára Vlachová and Dana Hamplová | Social Science Research | May 2023]
Compares the perceived importance of Christianity and cultural traditions in national identity across European societies.
Statement of Solidarity Against the “Russian World” Teaching
[Orthodox Christian Scholars | Public Orthodoxy | April 6, 2022]
Presents an explicitly critical Orthodox Christian response to the Russian World doctrine and to religious nationalism associated with Russian state ideology.
Immigration and Religious Nationalism in Europe
[Philip Barker | Politics and Religion Journal | 2022]
Examines the relationship between religious-national identity and attitudes toward immigration in European political contexts.
Christian Nationalism Is Thriving in Bolsonaro’s Brazil
[Raimundo Barreto and João B. Chaves | The Christian Century | December 2021]
Discusses Brazilian evangelical politics and argues that Christian-nationalist ideas became increasingly visible during Jair Bolsonaro’s presidency.
The Rise and Fall of Christian-Nationalism
[Mordechai Tamarkin | In die Skriflig | 2020]
Traces the ideological evolution of South African Dopper intellectuals and their historical relationship with Afrikaner Christian nationalism.
Organizations, Religious-Liberty Groups, and Competing Interpretations
Christian Nationalism Resource Center
[Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty | BJC | Current]
Collects reports, podcasts, statements, educational materials, and commentary from a Baptist religious-liberty organization strongly critical of Christian nationalism.
Statement of Principles — Christians Against Christian Nationalism
[Christians Against Christian Nationalism | Baptist Joint Committee | Current]
States the theological and civic principles of a Christian coalition that opposes merging Christian identity with American national identity or government authority.
Christian Nationalists and Freedom of Religion
[Liz Hayes | Americans United for Separation of Church and State | August 3, 2026]
Reports from the perspective of a church-state separation advocacy organization on contemporary disputes about religious liberty and Christian nationalism.
Religious Liberty Commission Draft Report Advances Christian Nationalism
[Alessandro Terenzoni | Americans United for Separation of Church and State | July 2, 2026]
Presents Americans United’s critical interpretation of a federal religious-liberty commission draft report and its treatment of American religious history.
Excerpts From The Founding Myth
[Andrew L. Seidel | Americans United for Separation of Church and State | May 1, 2026]
Presents an advocacy-oriented argument disputing claims that the United States was constitutionally founded as a Christian nation.
But … Is It Christian Nationalism?
[Amanda Tyler and Holly Hollman | Respecting Religion / BJC | 2024]
Discusses criteria the hosts use when deciding whether particular political rhetoric or policies should be described as Christian nationalism.
The Dog Whistle of “Christian Nationalism”
[Gillian Richards Augros | The Heritage Foundation | May 9, 2023]
Offers a conservative critique arguing that the term Christian nationalism is often defined too broadly and can be used to stigmatize conventional conservative Christian beliefs.
Christian Nationalism and the January 6, 2021 Insurrection
[Multiple Contributors | BJC and Freedom From Religion Foundation | 2022]
Collects essays and case studies examining Christian symbols, rhetoric, organizations, and participants connected with the January 6 Capitol attack.
Organizations, Networks, and Contemporary Reporting
Religion, National Identity, and America’s 250th Anniversary
[The Guardian | The Guardian | June 29, 2026]
Discusses controversies surrounding official commemoration of the United States’ 250th anniversary, including competing interpretations of religion and national identity.
Crowds Pack Washington’s National Mall for Prayer Rally
[Tiffany Stanley | Associated Press / PBS NewsHour | May 17, 2026]
Reports on a large religious rally in Washington and the differing views of organizers and critics concerning its political and religious significance.
Trump Administration to Join Prayer Gathering Criticized for Christian Nationalism
[Peter Smith | Associated Press | May 14, 2026]
Reports on a Washington prayer gathering, participating administration officials, and disagreement over whether the event reflects Christian nationalism.
Pete Hegseth to Headline Washington Faith Rally
[The Guardian | The Guardian | May 13, 2026]
Reports on participants and organizations associated with a Washington religious rally and the Christian-nationalism debate surrounding the event.
Christian Nationalism and U.S. Public Health
[Adrienne Matei | The Guardian | May 3, 2026]
Uses the contested term “Christofascism” while reporting arguments from critics who connect parts of contemporary health policy with religious-nationalist political movements.
How Pete Hegseth’s Religious Agenda Is Dividing the Military
[Ben Makuch | The Guardian | August 14, 2025]
Reports disputes over religious expression, military culture, and accusations by critics that some Pentagon initiatives reflect Christian-nationalist ideas.
Trump Has Put Christian Nationalists in Key Roles
[Adam Gabbatt | The Guardian | April 16, 2025]
Reports criticism from civil-liberties advocates regarding administration officials and advisers whom those critics identify with Christian-nationalist movements.
Oklahoma as a Testing Ground for Project 2025
[The Guardian | The Guardian | February 27, 2025]
Examines Oklahoma disputes involving public education, Bible instruction, religious displays, and church-state policy, connecting them to broader conservative policy initiatives.
Trump’s Anti-Christian Bias Task Force and Christian Nationalism
[Joseph Gedeon | The Guardian | February 7, 2025]
Reports reactions to an executive order establishing a task force focused on alleged anti-Christian bias and discusses critics’ Christian-nationalism concerns.
Katherine Stewart and the Contemporary Religious Right
[Adam Gabbatt | The Guardian | January 19, 2025]
Profiles Katherine Stewart’s book Money, Lies, and God and summarizes her argument about networks of religious, economic, and political power.
White Evangelical Voters and Donald Trump
[Associated Press | Associated Press | November 7, 2024]
Reviews election data concerning white evangelical voters and discusses religion’s continuing role in Republican electoral politics.
The “Appeal to Heaven” Flag From Revolutionary Symbol to Modern Political Banner
[Gary Fields, Lisa Mascaro and Farnoush Amiri | Associated Press | May 23, 2024]
Traces the historical origins and changing modern political meanings of the Appeal to Heaven flag, including its adoption by some Christian-nationalist activists.
Christian Nationalists Embrace Trump
[Adam Gabbatt | The Guardian | April 7, 2024]
Examines support for Donald Trump among activists and religious leaders described by the newspaper and scholars as Christian nationalists.
Documents Shed Light on Shadowy U.S. Far-Right Fraternal Order
[Jason Wilson | The Guardian | March 19, 2024]
Investigates the Society for American Civic Renewal and reports on documents concerning its membership structure, ideology, and political ambitions.
U.S. Conservative Think Tank’s Links to Extremist Fraternal Order
[Jason Wilson | The Guardian | March 11, 2024]
Investigates personal and organizational links between the Claremont Institute and the Society for American Civic Renewal.
Christian-Nation Idea Fuels U.S. Conservative Causes
[Peter Smith | Associated Press | February 17, 2024]
Reviews contemporary Christian-nation claims and contrasts them with historians’ differing interpretations of the founders and early American church-state arrangements.
Elections, Democracy, Civil Rights, and Social Boundaries
Christian Nationalism and the Vote for Donald Trump in the 2024 Presidential Election
[Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Nations and Nationalism | 2025]
Uses state-level data to examine the association between Christian-nationalist attitudes and Donald Trump’s 2024 electoral support.
Liberty for Us, Limits for Them
[Joshua T. Davis, Samuel L. Perry and Joshua B. Grubbs | Sociology of Religion | May 8, 2023]
Investigates Christian nationalism and differing attitudes toward civil liberties depending on which social or religious groups exercise those rights.
The Devil That You Know
[Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead and Joshua B. Grubbs | Politics and Religion | April 21, 2021]
Studies whether Christian-nationalist attitudes predicted intentions to change voting behavior for or against Donald Trump in the 2020 election.
Christian Nationalism, Perceived Anti-Christian Discrimination, and “Religious Freedom”
[Samuel L. Perry, Landon Schnabel and Joshua B. Grubbs | Nations and Nationalism | 2021]
Examines relationships among Christian nationalism, perceptions of anti-Christian discrimination, religious-freedom concerns, and voting intentions in 2020.
Porn as a Threat to the Mythic Social Order
[Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | The Sociological Quarterly | November 24, 2020]
Examines Christian nationalism, perceptions of pornography as a societal threat, and support for government restrictions.
Enforcing Christian Nationalism
[Joshua T. Davis | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | June 22, 2018]
Examines the relationship between Christian-nationalist identity and punitive attitudes concerning criminal justice and social control.
Religious Nationalism and Perceptions of Muslims and Islam
[Allyson F. Shortle and Ronald Keith Gaddie | Politics and Religion | June 19, 2015]
Examines whether religious nationalism helps explain American attitudes toward Muslims, Islam, and Muslim participation in national life.
A More Perfect Union? Christian Nationalism and Support for Same-Sex Unions
[Andrew L. Whitehead and Samuel L. Perry | Sociological Perspectives | April 6, 2015]
Investigates whether Christian-nationalist attitudes help explain differences in public opinion about same-sex marriage and civil unions.
Divine Boundaries: How Religion Shapes Citizens’ Attitudes Toward Immigrants
[Eric Leon McDaniel, Irfan Nooruddin and Allyson Faith Shortle | American Politics Research | September 9, 2010]
An earlier study examining religious and nationalist ideas as factors influencing American attitudes toward immigration.
Major Books and Long-Form Studies
Review of Baptizing America
[Courtney L. K. Haworth | Journal of Church and State | April 1, 2026]
Reviews Kaylor and Underwood’s argument about mainline Protestantism, civil religion, and the development of Christian nationalism.
The Christian Past That Wasn’t
[Warren Throckmorton | Broadleaf Books | 2026]
Examines historical claims commonly used to support Christian-nationalist narratives and compares them with documentary evidence from American history.
Defining Christian Nationalism
[Richard T. Hughes | Christian America and the Kingdom of God / Oxford Academic | 2025]
Examines terminology, competing definitions, and theological assumptions underlying contemporary discussions of Christian America and Christian nationalism.
How to End Christian Nationalism
[Amanda Tyler | Broadleaf Books | October 22, 2024]
Presents an advocacy-oriented Christian and religious-liberty argument against Christian nationalism and proposes strategies for congregations and citizens who oppose it.
Baptizing America
[Brian Kaylor and Beau Underwood | Chalice Press | July 9, 2024]
Argues that American civil religion and participation by mainline Protestants helped create cultural conditions later used by Christian-nationalist movements.
American Idolatry
[Andrew L. Whitehead | Baker Academic / Brazos Press | August 15, 2023]
Offers a sociologist’s explicitly Christian critique of Christian nationalism and discusses power, fear, violence, and national identity.
Preparing for War
[Bradley Onishi | Broadleaf Books | 2023]
Combines memoir, history, and political analysis to examine white Christian nationalism and the author’s experiences in conservative evangelical communities.
The Flag and the Cross
[Philip S. Gorski and Samuel L. Perry | Oxford University Press | April 21, 2022]
Develops the authors’ concept of white Christian nationalism and examines its historical roots, racial dimensions, political manifestations, and implications for democracy.
Bad Faith: Race and the Rise of the Religious Right
[Randall Balmer | Eerdmans | August 10, 2021]
Argues that racial politics and conflicts over segregated Christian schools played an important role in mobilizing the modern Religious Right.
White Evangelical Racism
[Anthea Butler | University of North Carolina Press | 2021]
Traces relationships among white evangelicalism, race, nationalism, Republican politics, and ideas about American moral identity.
Can the Center Hold?
[Ruth Braunstein | European Journal of Sociology | February 14, 2020]
Reviews Philip Gorski’s work on American civil religion and discusses how civil religion differs analytically from Christian nationalism.
The Power Worshippers
[Katherine Stewart | Bloomsbury | 2020]
Investigates conservative Christian political networks, donors, organizations, legal campaigns, and activists that the author characterizes as part of religious nationalism.
Whitewashing Racism and the Rise of the Religious Right
[Anthea Butler | University of North Carolina Press | 2020]
Examines how racial conflict and conservative Christian political organizing interacted during the emergence of the modern Religious Right.
Whom Will You Serve?
[Anthea Butler | University of North Carolina Press | 2020]
Concludes White Evangelical Racism by connecting historical racial politics with contemporary evangelical political identity.
The Founding Myth
[Andrew L. Seidel | Sterling / Union Square | May 14, 2019]
Challenges claims that the United States was legally established as a Christian nation and reviews founding-era documents and church-state history.
The Color of Compromise
[Jemar Tisby | Zondervan | January 22, 2019]
Surveys episodes in American history in which Christian churches and institutions accommodated or supported slavery, segregation, and racial discrimination.
Kierkegaard’s Critique of Christian Nationalism
[Stephen Backhouse | Oxford University Press | 2011]
Examines Søren Kierkegaard’s critique of established Christendom and explores its implications for relationships among Christianity, state power, nationalism, and national identity.
Comparative Religion, Civil Religion, Family, and Education
The Right Kind of Children
[doi:10.1111/jssr.70034 | Samuel L. Perry | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | March 14, 2026]
Distinguishes general pronatalism from selective pronatalism and investigates their different relationships with religiosity, Christian nationalism, masculinity, and demographic-threat beliefs.
Gun Problem or God Problem?
[doi:10.1111/jssr.70000 | Samuel L. Perry and Andrew L. Whitehead | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | August 25, 2025]
Studies relationships among support for teacher-led Christian prayer in public schools and different proposed responses to school shootings.
A Neglected Crisis: Understanding Christian Nationalism’s Effects on American Education
[Brock Lewis | Discover Education | May 7, 2025]
Reviews scholarship and policy controversies concerning Christian nationalism, curriculum, educational governance, and public schools.
The Internal Conflicts and Contemporary Dilemmas of America’s National Characteristics
[Shaoqing Zhou | International Journal of Anthropology and Ethnology | January 13, 2025]
Examines competing components of American national identity, including religion, ethnicity, civic ideals, immigration, and evangelical nationalism.
Catholic Social Teaching Frameworks for Teaching About Historical Injustices
[Social Studies Research and Practice | 2025]
Discusses approaches to teaching Catholic involvement in historical injustice and addresses contemporary debates involving race, nationalism, and white Christian nationalism.
One Leader Under God
[Public Religion Research Institute | PRRI | September 10, 2024]
Uses survey data to examine relationships between Christian nationalism and authoritarian attitudes while distinguishing the two concepts.
Civil Religion as a Gateway to Christian Nationalism
[Brian Kaylor and Beau Underwood | Religion News Service | June 25, 2024]
Argues that seemingly inclusive American civil-religious rituals and rhetoric can sometimes provide concepts later appropriated by more explicitly Christian-nationalist politics.
Defensive Racism and Christian Righteousness in the Time of Trump
[Women’s Studies International Forum | November–December 2023]
Examines gender, race, religious identity, and political rhetoric in conservative Christian responses during the Trump era.
Controlling the Past to Control the Future
[doi:10.1111/jssr.12858 | Samuel L. Perry, Joshua T. Davis and Joshua B. Grubbs | Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | May 22, 2023]
Examines Christian nationalism and support for mandatory patriotic approaches to teaching American history in public schools.
Which Civil Religion?
[Abigail Vegter, Andrew R. Lewis and Cammie Jo Bolin | Politics and Religion | January 26, 2023]
Distinguishes dimensions of American civil religion and examines their relationships with partisanship and Christian nationalism.
Civil Religion or Christian Nationalism?
[Russell McCutcheon | University of Alabama, Studying Religion in Culture | February 8, 2021]
Discusses conceptual differences between American civil religion and Christian nationalism and considers how scholars classify religious-political symbolism.
White Christian Nationalism and Relative Political Tolerance for Racists
[Joshua T. Davis and Samuel L. Perry | Social Problems | March 20, 2020]
Studies whether Christian-nationalist attitudes are associated with different levels of political tolerance toward explicitly racist groups.
God’s Country in Black and Blue
[Samuel L. Perry, Andrew L. Whitehead and Joshua T. Davis | Sociology of Race and Ethnicity | 2019]
Examines how Christian nationalism relates to white Americans’ perceptions of police mistreatment of Black Americans.
Being Christian in Western Europe
[Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | May 29, 2018]
Surveys Christian identity, religious practice, immigration attitudes, national identity, and secularization across Western Europe.
Nationalism, Immigration and Minorities
[Pew Research Center | Pew Research Center | May 29, 2018]
Examines connections among Christian identity, nationalism, attitudes toward Muslims and Jews, immigration, and national belonging across Western Europe.
